Chapter 8

Arrays

C++ Programming: Program Design Including Data Structures, Eighth Edition

1
 Objectives (1 of 3)

• In this chapter, you will:

• Learn the reasons for arrays

• Explore how to declare and manipulate data into arrays

• Understand the meaning of “array index out of bounds”

• Learn how to declare and initialize arrays

• Become familiar with the restrictions on array processing

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 Objectives (2 of 3)

• Discover how to pass an array as a parameter to a function

• Learn how to search an array

• Learn how to sort an array

• Become aware of auto declarations

• Learn about range-based for loops

• Learn about parallel arrays

• Discover how to manipulate data in a two-dimensional array

• Learn about multidimensional arrays

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 Objectives (3 of 3)

• Learn about C-strings

• Examine the use of string functions to process C-strings

• Discover how to input data into—and output data from—a C-string

• THE ABOVE TOPICS WILL BE COVERED LATER ON AFTER POINTERS

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 Introduction (1 of 3)

• Simple data type: variables of these types can store only one value at a time

• Structured data type: a data type in which each data item is actually collection
of many data items. Simple data types are building blocks of structured data
types.

• Arrays

• Structures

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 Introduction (2 of 3)

//Program to find the average test score and output the average test score
//and all the test scores that are less than the average test score.
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int test0, test1, test2, test3, test4;
double average;
cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(2);
cout << "Enter five test scores: ";
cin >> test0 >> test1 >> test2 >> test3 >> test4;
cout << endl;
average = (test0 + test1 + test2 + test3 + test4) / 5.0;
cout << "The average test score = " << average << endl;
if (test0 < average)
cout << test0 << " is less than the average “ << "test score." << endl;
if (test1 < average)
cout << test1 << " is less than the average “ << "test score." << endl;
if (test2 < average)
cout << test2 << " is less than the average “ << "test score." << endl;
if (test3 < average)
cout << test3 << " is less than the average “ << "test score." << endl;
if (test4 < average)
cout << test4 << " is less than the average “ << "test score." << endl;
return 0;
}

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 Introduction (3 of 3)

• For large amounts of data, the previous program is not efficient. Note the following in
the previous program:
1. Five variables must be declared because test scores less than the average test scores need to be
printed.

2. All test scores are of the same data type, int.

3. The way in which these variables are declared indicates that the variables to store these
numbers all have the same name—except the last character, which is a number.

4. All the if statements are similar, except the name of the variables to store the test scores.

• The data structure that lets you do handle all of these things efficiently in C++ is called
array.

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 Arrays (1 of 2)

• Array: is a collection of a fixed number of components (also called elements) all of the
same data type and in contiguous (that is, adjacent) memory space

• An array is a series of variables of the same type, referenced by the same name, each
one has an index number inside brackets (also called subscript) that differentiates each
variable. Individual element of an are also considered as scalar values and ensemble
they are considered as equivalent to a vector

• Examples: average marks of the students of a class, the list of capitals of the European
countries
• One-dimensional array: components are arranged in a list form
- Syntax for declaring a one-dimensional array

dataType arrayName[intExp];
- intExp: any constant expression that evaluates to a positive integer

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 Arrays (2 of 2)

• The statement:

int num[5];

declares an array num of five components.

• Each component is of type int.

Figure 8-1

• The components are num[0], num[1], num[2], num[3], and num[4].

• To save space, we can also draw an array horizontally, as shown in Figure 8-2(a) or 8-2(b).

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 Accessing Array Components (1 of 4)

• General syntax arrayName[indexExp];

The index expression is
• indexExp: called the index evaluated first, giving the
• An expression with a nonnegative integer value position of the component in the
array.
• The index vale specifies the position of the component in the array

• Array index always starts at 0

• []: array subscripting operator

• Consider the following statement: int list[10];
• This statement declares an array list of 10 components.

• The components are list[0], list[1], . . ., list[9]. In other words, we

have declared 10 variables, and all are of int type (see Figure 8-3).

FIGURE 8-3 Array list

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 Accessing Array Components (2 of 4)

• The assignment statement:

list[5] = 34;
stores 34 in list[5], the sixth component of the array list

FIGURE 8-4 Array list after execution of the statement list[5] = 34;

int i = 1;
list[2*i + 1] = 10;
list[6] = 35;
list[5] = list[3] + list[6];

FIGURE 8-5 Array list after execution of the statements list[3] = 10;,
list[6] = 35;, and list[5] = list[3] + list[6];

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 Accessing Array Components (3 of 4)

By simply changing the value of ARRAY_SIZE, from program to program, you may
change the number of elements that can be stored in the array list.

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Accessing Array Components (4 of 4)

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 Processing One-Dimensional Arrays (1 of 6)

• Basic operations on a one-dimensional array include:

• Initializing values of an array elements
• Inputting data into an array list
• Outputting data stored in an array list
• Finding the largest/smallest element of an array list
• Search the list for a given item in an array lis
• Sort the list (Ascending or Descending) of an array elements
• Insert an item at a given position in an array list
• Delete an item from the list
• For the numeric data, some other basic operations like finding the sum and average of the
elements of an array list

• Each operation requires ability to step through elements of the array

• Easily accomplished using a loop (Normally, for loop is sufficient)

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 Processing One-Dimensional Arrays (2 of 6)

• Given the declaration:

int list[100]; //array of size 100
int i;
• Use a for loop to access an array elements for input:
for (i = 0; i < 100; i++) //Line 1
cin >> list[i]; //Line 2
• Use a for loop to access array elements for output:
for (i = 0; i < 100; i++) //Line 1
cout << list[i] << " "; //Line 2
cout << endl; //Line 3

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 Processing One-Dimensional Arrays (3 of 6)

• This example shows how loops are used to process arrays.

• The following declarations are used throughout this example:
double sales[10];
double largestSale, sum, average;

a. Initializing an array: The following loop initializes every component of the array sales to 0.0.
for (int index = 0; index < 10; index++)
sales[index] = 0.0;

b. Inputting data into an array: The following loop inputs the data into the array sales. For
simplicity, we assume that the data is entered from the keyboard.
for (int index = 0; index < 10; index++)
cin >> sales[index];

c. Outputting/Printing data from an array: The following loop outputs the array sales. For
simplicity, we assume that the output goes to the screen.
for (int index = 0; index < 10; index++)
cout << sales[index] << " ";

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 Processing One-Dimensional Arrays (4 of 6)

d. Finding the sum and average of elements of an array: The following C++ code finds the sum of
the elements of the array sales and the average sale amount:
sum = 0;
for (int index = 0; index < 10; index++)
{
sum = sum + sales[index];
}
average = sum / 10;

e. Largest element of an array list: The algorithm is as follows:

maxIndex = 0;
for (int index = 1; index < 10; index++)
{
if (sales[maxIndex] < sales[index])
{
maxIndex = index;
}
}
LargestSale = sales[maxIndex];

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 Processing One-Dimensional Arrays (5 of 6)

Let us demonstrate how this algorithm works with an example. Suppose the array
sales is as given in the following Figure 8-6.

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 Processing One-Dimensional Arrays (6 of 6)

//Program to find the average test score and output the average test score
//and all the test scores that are less than the average test score.
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int item[5];
int sum = 0;
double average ;
int index ;
cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(2);
cout << "Enter five test scores: ";
for (index = 0; index < 5; index++)
{
cin >> test[index];
sum = sum + test[index];
}
cout << endl;
average = sum / 5.0;
cout << "The average test score = " << average << endl;
for (index = 0; index < 5; index++)
if (test[index] < average)
cout << test[index] << " is less than the average “ << "test score." << endl;
return 0;
}

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 Array Index Out of Bounds (1 of 2)

• The index of an array is in bounds if the index is between 0 and ARRAY_SIZE - 1

0 <= index <= ARRAY_SIZE - 1

• Otherwise, the index is out of bounds

- index is negative or index is greater than ARRAY_SIZE - 1

• In C++, there is no guard against indices that are out of bounds

• This check is solely the programmer’s responsibility

• Consider the following declaration:

double num[10];
int i;

The component num[i] is valid, that is, i is a valid index if

i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9

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 Array Index Out of Bounds (2 of 2)

• A loop such as the following can set the index out of bounds:
int list[10];
for (i = 0; i <= 10; i++)
list[i] = 0;

When i becomes 10, the loop test condition i <= 10 evaluates to true and the body of the
loop executes, which results in storing 0 in list[10]. Logically, list[10] does not exist.

• If an array index becomes out of bound, the situation can result in altering or accessing
the data of a memory location that you never intended to modify or access, or in trying to
access protected memory that causes the program to instantly halt.

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 Array Initialization During Declaration

• Arrays can be initialized during declaration

1. Values are placed between curly braces
2. Array size determined by the number of initial values in the braces if the array is declared
without size specified
Example 1:
double sales[5] = {12.25, 32.50, 16.90, 23, 45.68}
here, sales[0] = 12.25, sales[1] = 32.50, sales[2] = 16.90,
sales[3] = 23.00, sales[4] = 45.68

Example 2:
double sales[] = {12.25, 32.50, 16.90, 23, 45.68}
- Although it is not necessary to specify the size of the array if it is initialized during
declaration, it is a good practice to do so.
• The statement:
int list[10] = {0};
Declares an array of 10 components and initializes all of them to zero.

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 Partial Initialization of Arrays During Declaration

• The statement
int list[10] = {8, 5, 12};

Declares an array of 10 components and initializes list[0] = 8, list[1] = 5,

list[2] = 12, and all other components are initialized to 0

• Note that, here, the size of the array in the declaration statement does matter. For example, the
following statement can not be used for partial initialization:
int list[] = {5, 6, 3}; //Fixed sized array of size 3, all initialized

• When you partially initialize an array, then all of the elements that follow the first uninitialized
element must be uninitialized. Therefore, the following statement will result in a syntax error:
int list[10] = {2, 5, 6, , 8}; //illegal

In this initialization, because the fourth element is uninitialized, all elements that follow the
fourth element must be left uninitialized.
• Suppose that you have the following statement:
int x[5] = {};
Then some compilers may initialize each element of the array x to 0.
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 Some Restrictions on Array Processing (1 of 2)

• Aggregate operation: any operation that manipulates the entire array as a single unit

• Not allowed on arrays in C++

• Example
int myList[5] = {0, 4, 8, 12, 16}; //initialized, array of 5
elements
int yourList[5]; //uninitialized array of 5 elements
yourList = myList; //illegal, can’t copy the whole array
yourList = yourList + myList; //illegal

Solution: To copy one array into another array, you must copy it component-wise
yourList[0] = myList[0]; yourList[1] = myList[1];
yourList[2] = myList[2]; yourList[3] = myList[3];
yourList[4] = myList[4];

This can be accomplished more efficiently using a loop, such as

for (int index = 0; index < 5; index++)
yourList[index] = myList[index]; //copy element by element

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 Some Restrictions on Array Processing (2 of 2)

• Next, suppose that you want to read data into the array yourList. The following
statement is illegal and, in fact, would generate a syntax error:

• Example:
cin >> yourList; //illegal

• To read data into yourList, you must read one component at a time, using a loop
such as the following:
for (int index = 0; index < 5; index++)
cin >> yourList[index];

• Similarly, determining whether two arrays have the same elements and printing the
contents of an array must be done component-wise.

• The following statements are legal in the sense that they do not generate a syntax error;
however, they do not give the desired results.
cout << yourList;
if (myList <= yourList)
. ..
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 Passing Individual Arrays Elements as Parameters to Functions (1 of 3)

• Individual Array elements used as actual parameters in a function call: Consider the
following function calls to two different functions to swap the numbers
1. mySwap1(x[i], x[i+1]);
2. mySwap2(x[i], x[i+1]);

• Individual Array elements used as formal parameters in a function header:

1. void mySwap1(int a, int b);
2. void mySwap2(int& a, int& b);
• Note that the first example is pass-by-value (input arguments) and the second example is pass-
by-reference (input/output arguments).
void mySwap1(int a, int b) void mySwap2(int& a, int& b)
{ {
int temp = a; int temp = a;
a = b; a = b;
b = temp; b = temp;
} }

Function mySwap1 cannot be used for swapping through function call as the
parameters are pass-by-value. Formal parameters a and b are local variables
in function mySwap1. They are swapped inside the function mySwap1
only so that swapping does not affect variables in the calling function.
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 Passing Individual Arrays Elements as Parameters to Functions (2 of 3)

• Data Areas for main() and myswap1(int a, int b) Formal parameters a

i = 2; and b have their own
myswap1(x[i], x[i+1]);
Data Area of main memory to copy the
data.
x
Data Area of
0 10 myswap1
1 15 a
2 20 20

3 25 b

4 30 25

5 35

6 40

7 45

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 Passing Individual Arrays Elements as Parameters to Functions (3 of 3)

• Data Areas for main() and myswap2(int& a, int& b) Formal parameters a

i = 2; and b refer to the
myswap2(x[i], x[i+1]); same memory
Data Area of main location as of x[2]
and x[3].
x
Data Area of
0 10 myswap2
1 15 a
Formal parameters a and b can be
considered aliases of x[2] and 2 25
x[3], which are referring to same 3 20 b
memory location as of actual
parameters. 4 30

5 35

6 40

7 45

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 Passing Arrays as Parameters to Functions (1 of 2)

• We can also write functions that take entire arrays as actual and formal parameters.

• Arrays are always passed to functions by reference only

• Only the base address of the array passed as actual argument (not the copy entire
array elements values or their addresses)
- This is what happens in pass-by-reference.

- As we are not passing a copy of the array – any changes to the array made within the function
(by modifying formal parameter) will also affect the original array (actual parameter)

• Being the default property of passing arrays by reference only to functions, therefore
do not need to use symbol & when declaring an array as a formal parameter

• The size of the one-dimensional array is also omitted when declaring an array as a
formal parameter
- If provided, it is ignored by the compiler
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 Passing Arrays as Parameters to Functions (2 of 2)

• Arrays are passed as actual parameters by simply writing their name (brackets [] are
not required)
- The following example illustrates a function call, the sizes of both the arrays are unspecified
int listInt[10];
double listDouble[5];
funcArrayAsParam(listInt, listDouble); // function call

• The following example illustrates a function header, which includes an arrays as formal
parameter, the sizes of both the arrays are unspecified
void funcArrayAsParam(int listOne[], double listTwo[])
{
.
.
. Where are the arrays of formal parameters actually located?
}
• At the data area of the function that actually declared it these arrays.

• ‘listOne’ and ‘listTwo’ are just aliases to the same memory

locations as of ‘listInt’ and ‘listDouble’.
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 Partially Filled Arrays (1 of 2)

• Suppose an array which stores students’ list registered in a particular course and the
number of elements in the array might increase or decrease as students drop or add that
course.

• To handle such situations, the programmers often declares an array large enough to hold
the largest possible list.

• In certain situations, such an array might only be partially filled

• The array has data in some initial array elements, but remaining array elements are
unused or hold invalid data and we want to process only those elemwnts of the array
that hold the actual data.
- The program is required to process the same array having varying lengths of data at
different times. How to specify the size of such an array for processing?

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 Partially Filled Arrays (2 of 2)

• Key to process partially filled arrays

- The program keeps track of how many array elements are actually in use.

1. Declare and maintain a dedicated int variable to hold the actual list size. The
array can be processed by using a counter controlled for loop or while loop
const int MAXSIZE 10;
int myList[MAXSIZE] = {90, 85, 77, 86, 40];
int listSize = 5;

The listSize is increased/decreased each time the array element is updated.

2. An array can be filled with valid values and indicate the end of actual values list
by placing a sentinel value after the last valid value in the array. The array can
be processed by using a sentinel while loop
const int MAXSIZE 10;
int myList[MAXSIZE] = {90, 85, 77, 86, 40, -1];

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 Partially Filled Arrays as Parameters to Functions

• To write a function to process partially filled arrays, in addition to declaring an array as

a formal parameter, declare another formal parameter specifying the number of
actual elements in the array and use a CCV loop inside the function body:
void print(int list[], int listSize)
{
for (int count = 0; count < listSize; count++)
cout << list[count] << endl;
}

• Alternatively, in addition to declaring an array as a formal parameter, declare another

suitable formal parameter specifying the sentinel value and use a sentinel while loop
inside the function body:
void print(int list[], const int SENTINEL)
{
int count = 0 ;
while (list[count] != SENTINEL) {
cout << list[count] << endl;
++count;
}
}

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 Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters (1 of 5)

• Recall that when a formal parameter is a reference parameter, then whenever the formal
parameter changes, the actual parameter changes as well.

• However, even though an array is always passed by reference, you can still prevent the
function from changing the actual parameter.
• Use const in the declaration of the formal parameter. This qualifier marks an array strictly as
input (i.e. read-only or input-only) parameter, rather than the default behaviors of both input as
well as output parameter
void example(int x[], const int y[], int sizeX, int sizeY);

Here, the function example can modify the array x, but not the array y.

Any attempt to change the array y inside the function example will result in a compile-time
error.

It is a good programming practice to declare an array to be constant as a formal parameter

if you do not want a function to modify the array.

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 Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters (2 of 5)

• These examples shows how to write functions for array processing and how to declare
an array as a formal parameter.
//Function to initialize an int array to 0.
//The array to be initialized and its size are passed as parameters.
//The parameter listSize specifies the number of elements to be initialized.
void initializeArray(int list[], int listSize)
{
for (int index = 0; index < listSize; index++)
list[index] = 0;
}

//Function to read and store the data into an int array.

//The array to store the data and its size are passed as parameters.
//The parameter listSize specifies the number of elements to be read.
void fillArray(int list[], int listSize)
{
for (int index = 0; index < listSize; index++)
cin >> list[index];
}

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Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters (3 of 5)
//Function to print the elements of an int array.
//The array to be printed and the number of elements are passed as parameters.
//The parameter listSize specifies the number of elements to be printed.
void printArray(const int list[], int listSize)
{
for (int index = 0; index < listSize; index++)
cout << list[index] << " ";
}

//Function to find and return the sum of the elements of an int array.
//The parameter listSize specifies the number of elements to be added.
int sumArray(const int list[], int listSize)
{
int sum = 0;
for (int index = 0; index < listSize; index++)
sum = sum + list[index];
return sum;
}

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Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters (4 of 5)
//Function to find and return the index of the first largest element in an int array.
//The parameter listSize specifies the number of elements in the array.
int indexLargestElement(const int list[], int listSize)
{
int maxIndex = 0; //assume the first element is the largest
for (int index = 1; index < listSize; index++)
if (list[maxIndex] < list[index])
maxIndex = index;
return maxIndex;
}

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Constant Arrays as Formal Parameters (5 of 5)
//Function to copy some or all of the elements of one array into another array.
//Starting at the position specified by src, the elements of list1 are copied into list2
//starting at the position specified by tar.
//The parameter numOfElements specifies the number of elements of list1 to
//be copied into list2.
//Starting at the position specified by tar, the list2 must have enough components to copy the
//elements of list1.
//The following call copies all of the elements of list1 into the corresponding positions in list2:
//copyArray(list1, 0, list2, 0, numOfElements);

void copyArray(int list1[], int src, int list2[],

int tar, int numOfElements)
{
for (int index = src; index < src + numOfElements; index++)
{
list2[tar] = list1[index];
tar++;
}
}

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 Base Address of an Array and Array in Computer Memory (1 of 4)

• The base address of an array is the address (memory location) of the first array
component

• If list is a one-dimensional array, its base address is the address of list[0]

• When an array is passed as a parameter, the base address of the actual array is passed to
the formal parameter:
int myList[5];
• The computer allocates five memory spaces, each
large enough to store an int value.

• Moreover, the five memory spaces are contiguous.

• The base address of the array myList is the

address of the component myList[0].

• Suppose that the base address of the array

myList is 1000.

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 Base Address of an Array and Array in Computer Memory (2 of 4)

• Consider the following statement:

cout << myList << endl; //Line 2
This statement will not output the values of the components of myList.
In fact, the statement outputs the value of myList, which is the base address of the array.
This is why the statement will not generate a syntax error.
• Suppose that you also have the following statement:
int yourList[5];
// Then, in the statement:
if (myList <= yourList) //Line 3, doesn’t compare the elements
...

the expression myList <= yourList evaluates to true if the base address of the
array myList is less than the base address of the array yourList; and evaluates to false
otherwise.

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 Base Address of an Array and Array in Computer Memory (3 of 4)

• Why the base address of an array is so important

• When you declare an array, the only things about the array that the computer
remembers are
1. name of the array, 2. base address, 3. data type of each component,
4. the number of components (optional)
• Using the base address of the array and the index of an array component, the
computer can determine the address of a particular component to access or modify it.
- For example, suppose you want to access the value of myList[3]and the base address of
myList is 1000.

- Each component of myList is of type int, so it uses four bytes to store a value.

- To access the value of myList[3], the computer calculates the address 1000 + 4 * 3 =
1000 + 12 = 1012. That is, this is the starting address of myList[3].

- So, starting at the address 1012, the computer accesses the next four bytes.
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 Base Address of an Array and Array in Computer Memory (4 of 4)

• When you pass an array as a parameter, the base address of the actual array is also passed to
the formal parameter in function call.
int myList[5]; //Suppose, the base address of myList is 1000
// Also, suppose that you have the following call the function: arrayAsParameter
arrayAsParameter(myList, 5);
void arrayAsParameter(int list[], int size)
{
...
list[3] = 28; // Line 4, Also update the list element myList[3].
...
}
Statement of Line 4 stores 28 into list[3]. To access list[3], the computer calculates the
address as follows: 1000 + 4 * 3 = 1012. So, starting at the address 1012, the computer
accesses the next four bytes to access list[3]. As lists, list[3] and myList[3] refer
to the same memory location 1012, list[3] = 28 will also be updated myList[3].

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 Functions Cannot Return a Value of the Type Array (1 of 2)

• C++ does not allow functions to return a value of type array

• Refer to Example 8-6 in the text

- Functions sumArray and indexLargestElement return single values of type int
respectively.

• To do it properly if needed

• Pass an array in function as an input-output argument (without the qualifier const

as formal parameter declaration) from your calling function and modify it inside the
called function.
- Default behavior: Passing Arrays as Parameters to Functions

• Example: While calling functions, input arrays and output arrays are passed the same way.
int x[3] = {1, 2, 3}, y[3] = {2, 3, 4}, x_plus_y[3];
add_arrays(x, y, x_plus_y, 3);

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 Functions Cannot Return a Value of the Type Array (2 of 2)

• The add_arrays function computes the sum by reading the corresponding elements from input
arrays ar1 and ar2, and then stores and returns the sum results as an output array arsum3.

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 Other Ways to Declare Arrays

• In C++, you can create synonyms or aliases to a previously defined data type by using the
typedef statement.
Syntax : typedef existingTypeName newTypeName;

• In C++, typedef is a reserved word. The typedef statement does not create any new data
type; it creates only an alias to an existing data type.
• Example 1
const int SIZE = 50;
double list[SIZE];
• Example 2
const int SIZE = 50; //Line 1
typedef double list[SIZE]; //Line 2
list yourList; //Line 3
list myList; //Line 4

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 Searching an Array for a Specific Item (1 of 4)
• Sequential search (or linear search)
• Searching a list for a given item, starting from the first array element
• Compare each element in the array with value that is being searched
• Continue the search until item is found or no more data is left in the list
int seqSearch(const int list[], int listLength, int searchItem)
{
int loc;
bool found = false;
Use a flag-controlled
loc = 0;
while (loc < listLength && !found) { loop to keep track of
if (list[loc] == searchItem) whether the element
found = true; being searched found
else in an array or not.
loc++; }
if (found)
return loc;
else
return -1;
}
If the function seqSearch returns a value greater than or equal to
0, it is a successful search; otherwise, it is an unsuccessful search.
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 Searching an Array for a Specific Item (2 of 4)

// This program illustrates how to use a sequential search in a program.

#include <iostream> //Line 1
using namespace std; //Line 2
const int ARRAY_SIZE = 10; //Line 3
int seqSearch(const int list[], int listLength, int searchItem); //Line 4
int main() //Line 5
{ //Line 6
int intList[ARRAY_SIZE]; //Line 7
int number; //Line 8
cout << "Line 9: Enter " << ARRAY_SIZE << " integers." << endl; //Line 9
for (int index = 0; index < ARRAY_SIZE; index++) //Line 10
cin >> intList[index]; //Line 11
cout << endl; //Line 12
cout << "Line 13: Enter the number to be “ << "searched: "; //Line 13
cin >> number; //Line 14
cout << endl; //Line 15
int pos = seqSearch(intList, ARRAY_SIZE, number); //Line 16
if (pos!= -1) //Line 17
cout <<"Line 18: " << number << " is found at position " << pos << endl;
else
cout << "Line 20: " << number << " is not in the list." << endl;
return 0;
}
//Place the definition of the function seqSearch given previously here.

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Searching an Array for a Specific Item (3 of 4)
int seqSearch(const int list[], int listLength, int searchItem)
{
int loc;
bool found = false;
loc = 0;
while (loc < listLength && !found)
if (list[loc] == searchItem)
found = true;
else
loc++;
if (found)
return loc;
else
return -1;
}

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 Searching an Array for a Specific Item (4 of 4)

• Sequential search (or linear search)

• Simple

• Compare each element of array with a key value

- Start from first element and may go until end

• Useful for small and unsorted arrays

• If searchItem is at the bottom of the list, it will take many comparisons to find it.

• Not an efficient algorithm, especially for large arrays.

• If the list is sorted, then you can significantly improve the search algorithm.

• For sorted arrays, another search algorithm (binary search) is more efficient.

- There are many sorting algorithms.

• Selection Sort, Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort, etc

49
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 Sorting (1 of 11)

• Selection Sort: rearrange the list by selecting an element and moving it to its proper
position

• Steps for a selection sort:

• Find the smallest element in the unsorted portion of the list

• Move it to the top of the unsorted portion by swapping with the element currently there

• Start again with the rest of the list

FIGURE 8-10 Elements of 1ist during the first iteration FIGURE 8-11 Elements of list during the second iteration

50
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 Sorting (2 of 11)

Selection Sort: (cont’d)

#include <iostream> //Line 1

using namespace std; //Line 2
void selectionSort(int list[], int length); //Line 3
int main() //Line 4
{ //Line 5
int list[] = {2, 56, 34, 25, 73, 46, 89, 10, 5, 16}; //Line 6
int i; //Line 7
selectionSort(list, 10); //Line 8
cout << "After sorting, the list elements are:"
<< endl; //Line 9
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) //Line 10
cout << list[i] << " "; //Line 11
cout << endl; //Line 12
return 0; //Line 13
}

51
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 Sorting (3 of 11)

Selection Sort: (cont’d)

void selectionSort(int list[], int length)
{
int index;
int smallestIndex; int location;
int temp;
for (index = 0; index < length - 1; index++)
{
//Step a
smallestIndex = index;
for (location = index + 1; location < length; location++)
if (list[location] < list[smallestIndex])
smallestIndex = location;
//Step b
temp = list[smallestIndex];
list[smallestIndex] = list[index];
list[index] = temp;
} • Note that the ordering can also be both descending according
} to the application nature (Bubble down)
• In the conditional statement replace < by > and use
largestIndex as identifier instead of smallestIndex.

For a list of length , selection sort makes exactly key

comparisons and item assignments.
52
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 Sorting (4 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: Bubble sort is another classical sorting algorithm, which uses the “Bubble-
up” process multiple times to sort the array in ascending order.
• Bubble-up means move the largest element to the lowest position in the list and smallest
element to the highest position in the list

• For sorting in descending order, Bubble sort uses “Bubble-down” process.

- move the largest element to the highest position in the list.

• We will discuss Bubble sort in ascending order algorithm in detail.

FIGURE 16-1 List of five elements

53
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 Sorting (5 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: (cont’d)

• Suppose list[0]...list[N - 1] is a list of N elements, indexed 0 to N - 1.

• We want to rearrange, that is, sort, the elements of list in increasing order. The bubble
sort algorithm works as follows:
• In a series of N - 1 iterations, the successive elements list[index] and list[index +
1] of list are compared.

• If list[index] is greater than list[index + 1], then the elements list[index]

and list[index + 1] are swapped, that is, interchanged.
- The smaller elements move toward the top (beginning), and the larger elements move toward
the bottom (end) of the list.

• In the first iteration, we consider list[0]...list[N - 1]; in the second iteration, we

consider list[0]...list[N - 2]; in the third iteration, we consider
list[0]...list[N - 3], and so on.
54
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 Sorting (6 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: (cont’d)

- For example, consider list[0]...list[4].

FIGURE 16-1 List of five elements

- Iteration 1: Sort list[0]...list[4]

FIGURE 16-2 Elements of list during the first iteration

55
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 Sorting (7 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: (cont’d)

- Iteration 2: Sort list[0]...list[3]

FIGURE 16-3 Elements of list during the second iteration

- Iteration 3: Sort list[0]...list[2]

FIGURE 16-4 Elements of list during the third iteration

56
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 Sorting (8 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: (cont’d)

- Iteration 4: Sort list[0]...list[1]

FIGURE 16-5 Elements of list during the fourth iteration

• After the fourth iteration, list is sorted.

• For a list of length N, the bubble sort given previously makes exactly key comparisons and, on
average, about item assignments.

• Therefore, if N = 1000, to sort the list, bubble sort makes about 500,000 key comparisons
and about 250,000 item assignments.

57
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 Sorting (9 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: (cont’d)

#include <iostream> //Line 1

using namespace std; //Line 2
void bubbleSort(int list[], int length); //Line 3
int main() //Line 4
{ //Line 5
int list[] = {2, 56, 34, 25, 73, 46, 89, 10, 5, 16}; //Line 6
int i; //Line 7
bubbleSort(list, 10); //Line 8
cout << "After sorting, the list elements are:"
<< endl; //Line 9
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) //Line 10
cout << list[i] << " "; //Line 11
cout << endl; //Line 12
return 0; //Line 13
}

58
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 Sorting (10 of 11)

• Bubble Sort: (cont’d)

void bubbleSort(int list[], int length)
{
int temp;
int iteration;
int index;
for (iteration = 1; iteration < length; iteration++)
{
for (index = 0; index < length - iteration; index++)
{
if (list[index] > list[index + 1])
{
temp = list[index];
list[index] = list[index + 1];
list[index + 1] = temp;
}
}
}
}

• Note that the ordering can also be descending according to the application nature.
• For descending order, in the conditional statement replace > by < (bubble down)
59
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 Sorting (11 of 11)

• We have discussed two sorting algorithms.

1. Selection Sort 2. Bubble Sort

• In fact, these are not the only sorting algorithms. For example, Insertion Sort

• Why there are so many different sorting algorithms?

• The performance of each sorting algorithm is different.

• Some algorithms make more comparisons, whereas others make fewer item assignments.

• Also, there are algorithms that make fewer comparisons, as well as fewer item assignments.

• Analysis of the number of key comparisons and item assignments allows the user to decide which
algorithm to use in a particular situation.

- The Insertion Sort algorithm reduces the number of comparisons.

• For more information: Page 1075-1079 of the textbook

60
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 Auto Declaration and Range-Based for Loops (1 of 2)

• C++11 allows auto declaration of variables

– Data type does not need to be specified

auto num = 15;

Because the initializer, which is 15, is an int value, the type of num will be int.

• Use of for loop for array processing

• One way to process the elements of an array one-by-one starting at first element, is to use an
index variable, initialized to 0, and a counter-controlled loop.
for (int index = 0; index < length; index++)
//process list[index]

• Range-based for loop

• C++11 provides a special type of for loop to process the elements of an array.
for (dataType identifier : arrayName)
statements

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 Auto Declaration and Range-Based for Loops (2 of 2)
• Range-based for loop: cont’d
double list[25];
double sum;
sum = 0; //line 1
for (double num : list) // line 2: read as “for each num in list”
sum = sum + num;
The variable num is initialized to contents of list[0]. In the next iteration, the value of
num is contents of list[1], and so on.
You can also use auto declaration in a range-based loop to process the elements of an array.
for (auto num : list)
{
if (max < num)
max = num;
}

• You can’t use the range-based for loop inside a function

void doSomething(int list[])
{
//can’t use range-based for loop
}
- Formal parameter list is, in fact, not an array, it is a variable to store the address of a
memory location, so it has no first (that is, list[0]) and the last elements

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 Parallel Arrays

• Two (or more) arrays are called parallel if their corresponding components hold
related information
• The following example illustrates two parallel arrays:
int studentId[50];
char courseGrade[50];

With the following sample data to enter into the arrays:

studentId courseGrade
23456 A
86723 B
22356 C
92733 B
Note that, in general, when swapping values in one array, the
11892 D
. corresponding values in parallel arrays must also be swapped.
. int noOfStudents = 0;
. infile >> studentId[noOfStudents] >> courseGrade[noOfStudents];
while (infile && noOfStudents < 50)
{
noOfStudents++;
Infile >> studentId[noOfStudents] >> courseGrade[noOfStudents];
}
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 Two- and Multidimensional Arrays

• Two-dimensional array: a collection of a fixed number of components (of the

same type) arranged in two or higher dimensions
– Two-dimensional (2D) arrays sometimes called matrices or tables

• Declaration syntax
dataType arrayName[intExp1][intExp2];
• intExp1 and intExp2 are expressions with positive integer values specifying the number of
rows and columns in the array

• Accessing two-dimensional array components:

• Syntax to access a component in a two-dimensional array

arrayName[intExp1][intExp2];
• indexExp1 and indexExp2 are expressions with positive integer values, and specify the
row and column position

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Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Components

• If the data is provided in a list form, you can use one-dimensional arrays
• Two-dimensional arrays are used for data is that is in a table form

double sales[10][5];
double sales[10][5]; int i = 5;
sales[5][3] = 25.75; int j = 3;
sales[i][j] = 25.75;

FIGURE 8-14 sales[5][3]

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 Two-Dimensional Array Initialization During Declaration

• Two-dimensional arrays can be initialized when they are declared

• Elements of each row are enclosed within curly braces and separated by commas

• For number arrays, unspecified elements are set to 0.In this case, at least one of the
values must be given to initialize all the components of a row

• An example of two-dimensional array initialization is shown below:

int board[4][3] = {{2, 3, 1},
{15, 25, 13},
{20, 4, 7},
{11, 18, 14}};

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 Two-Dimensional Arrays and Enumeration Types (optional) (1 of 2)

• Enumeration types can be used effectively to make the program readable and easy to
manage. They can also be used for array indices
const int NUMBER_OF_ROWS = 6;
const int NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS = 5;
enum carType {GM, FORD, TOYOTA, BMW, NISSAN, VOLVO};
enum colorType {RED, BROWN, BLACK, WHITE, GRAY};
int inStock[NUMBER_OF_ROWS][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS];

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 Two-Dimensional Arrays and Enumeration Types (optional) (2 of 2)

• The statement: inStock[1][3] = 15;

is equivalent to the following statement:
inStock[FORD][WHITE] = 15;

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 Processing Two-Dimensional Arrays (1 of 2)

• Ways to process a two-dimensional array:

• Process a single element

- Like processing a single variable

• Process the entire array

- Initializing and print­ing the entire array

• Process a single row at a time, called row processing

• Process a single column at a time, called column processing

- Finding the largest element in a row (column) or finding the sum of a row (column)

• The components of any row or column are of the same type.

• This means that each row and each column of a two-dimensional array is a one-
dimensional array.

• To process, use algorithms similar to processing one-dimensional arrays

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 Processing Two-Dimensional Arrays (2 of 2)

const int NUMBER_OF_ROWS = 7; //This can be set to any number.

const int NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS = 6; //This can be set to any number.
int matrix[NUMBER_OF_ROWS][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS];
int row;
int col;
int sum;
int largest;
int temp;

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 Initialization

• An example initializing row number 4 (fifth row) to 0:

row = 4;
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
matrix[row][col] = 0;

• An example initializing column number 1 (second columns) to 0:

col = 1;
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
matrix[row][col] = 0;

• An example initializing the entire matrix to 0, here use nested for loop
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
matrix[row][col] = 0;

const int NUMBER_OF_ROWS = 7; //This can be set to any number.

const int NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS = 6; //This can be set to any number.
int matrix[NUMBER_OF_ROWS][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS];
int row;
int col;
int sum;
int largest;
int temp;

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 Print

• Use a nested loop to output the components of a two-dimensional array

for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
cout << setw(5) << matrix[row][col] << " ";
}
cout << endl;
}

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 Input

• An example of inputting values to the row number 4 (fifth row) :

row = 4;
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
cin >> matrix[row][col];
}

• An example of inputting values to the column number 3 (fourth column):

col = 3;
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
cin >> matrix[row][col];
}

• An example of inputting vales to each component of the matrix:

for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
cin >> matrix[row][col];
}
}
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 Sum by Row

• The following example shows how to find the sum of row number 4:
sum = 0;
row = 4;
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
sum += matrix[row][col];
}

• The following example illustrates finding the sum of each individual row:
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
sum = 0;
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
sum += matrix[row][col];
}
cout << "Sum of row " << row + 1 << " = " << sum << endl;
}

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 Sum by Column

• The following example shows how to find the sum of column number 3:
sum = 0;
col = 3;
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
sum += matrix[row][col];
}

• The following example illustrates finding the sum of each individual column:
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
sum = 0;
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
sum += matrix[row][col];
}
cout << "Sum of column " << col + 1 << " = " << sum << endl;
}

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 Sum of Whole Matrix Components

• The following example illustrates finding the sum of whole matrix components:
sum = 0;
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
sum += matrix[row][col];
}
}
cout << "Sum of matrix components" << " = " << sum << endl;

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 Largest and Smallest Element in a Row

• The following example finds the largest element in a row:

row = 4;
//Assume that the first element of the row is the largest/smallest.
largest = matrix[row][0];
smallest = matrix[row][0];
for (row = 1; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
if (matrix[row][col] > largest)
{
largest = matrix[row][col];
}
if (matrix[row][col] < smallest)
{
smallest = matrix[row][col];
}

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 Largest and Smallest Element in Each Row

• The following example finds the largest or smallest element in each row:
For (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
largest = matrix[row][0];
smallest = matrix[row][0];
for (col = 1; col < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; col++)
{
if (matrix[row][col] > largest)
{
largest = matrix[row][col];
}
if (matrix[row][col] < smallest)
{
smallest = matrix[row][col];
}
}
cout << "The largest element in row " << row + 1
<< " = " << largest << endl;
cout << "The smallest element in row " << row + 1
<< " = " << smallest << endl;
}

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 Largest and Smallest Element in a Column

• The following example finds the largest element in a column:

col = 3;
//Assume that the first element of the column is the largest/smallest.
largest = matrix[0][col];
smallest = matrix[0][col];
for (row = 1; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
if (matrix[row][col] > largest)
{
largest = matrix[row][col];
}
if (matrix[row][col] < smallest)
{
smallest = matrix[row][col];
}
}

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 Largest and Smallest Element in Each Column

• The following example finds the largest element in each column:

for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
largest = matrix[0][col];
smallest = matrix[0][col];
for (row = 1; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
if (matrix[row][col] > largest)
{
largest = matrix[row][col];
}
if (matrix[row][col] < largest)
{
smallest = matrix[row][col];
}
}
cout << "The largest element in column " << col + 1
<< " = " << largest << endl;
cout << "The smallest element in column " << col + 1
<< " = " << smallest << endl;
}

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 Largest and Smallest Element in a Matrix

• The following example finds the largest and the smallest element in a Matrix:
//Assume the first element of the matrix is the largest.
largest = matrix[0][0];
smallest = matrix[0][0];
for (row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
{
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
if (matrix[row][col] > largest)
{
largest = matrix[row][col];
}
}
}
cout << "The largest element in matrix “ << " = “
<< largest << endl;
cout << "The smallest element in matrix “ << " = “
<< smallest << endl;

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 Passing Individual 2D Arrays Elements as Parameters to Functions

• Like 1D arrays, 2D individual array elements are treated as ordinary scalar variables, so
they can also be passed both by value and by reference as follows:

• Consider the following function calls to two different functions with 2D array elements
used as actual parameters:
1. int max = larger (x[i][j], x[i+1][j+1]);
2. myswap2(x[i][j], x[i+1][j+1]);

• 2D array elements used as formal parameters in a function header:

1. int larger(int a, int b);
2. void mySwap(int& a, int& b);
- Note that the first example is pass-by-value (input arguments) and the second example is pass-
by-reference (input/output arguments).
int larger (int x, int y) void mySwap(int& a, int& b)
{ {
if (x >= y) int temp = a;
return x; a = b;
return y; b = temp;
} }

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 Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions (1 of 6)

• In the case of a one-dimensional array, when declaring it as a formal parameter, you

usually omit the size of the array.

• Two-dimensional arrays are also always passed by reference as parameters to a function

• The base address is passed to the formal parameter

• When storing a two-dimensional array in the computer’s memory, C++ uses the row
order form.

• That is, the first row is stored first, followed by the second row, followed by the third
row, and so on.

• Therefore, to compute the address of a component correctly, the compiler must know
where one row ends and the next row begins.
- Therefore, when declaring a two-dimensional array as a formal parameter, you can omit the
size of the first dimension, but not the second.

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 Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions (2 of 6)

The following function prints the elements of each row of a two dimensional array
whose elements are of type int.
const int NUMBER_OF_ROWS = 6;
const int NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS = 5;

void printMatrix (int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS], int noOfRows)

{
for (int row = 0; row < noOfRows; row++)
{
for (int col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
cout << setw(5) << matrix[row][col] << " ";
}
cout << endl;
}
}
• The function takes as a parameter a two-dimensional array of an unspecified number
of rows and five columns, and outputs the content of the two-dimensional array.

• During the function call, the number of columns of the actual parameter must match
the number of columns of the formal parameter.
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 Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions (3 of 6)

The following function prints the elements of each row of a two dimensional array
whose elements are of type int.
void sumRows(int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS], int noOfRows)
{
int row, col;
int sum;
//Sum of each individual row
for (row = 0; row < noOfRows; row++)
{
sum = 0;
for (col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
sum = sum + matrix[row][col];
}
cout << "Sum of row " << (row + 1) << " = " << sum << endl;
}
}

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 Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions (4 of 6)

The following function determines the largest element in each row:

void largestInRows(int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS], int noOfRows)

{
int largest;
//Largest element in each row
for (int row = 0; row < noOfRows; row++)
{
largest = matrix[row][0];
//Assume that the first element of the row is the largest.
for (int col = 1; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
{
if (largest < matrix[row][col])
{
largest = matrix[row][col];
}
}
cout << "The largest element of row " << (row + 1)
<< " = " << largest << endl;
}
}

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 Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions (5 of 6)

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int NUMBER_OF_ROWS = 6;
const int NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS = 5;
void printMatrix(int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS], int NUMBER_OF_ROWS);
void sumRows(int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS], int NUMBER_OF_ROWS);
void largestInRows(int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS],int NUMBER_OF_ROWS);
int main()
{
int board[NUMBER_OF_ROWS][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS]
= {{17, 8, 24, 10, 28}, {9, 20, 16, 55, 90},
{25, 45, 35, 8, 78}, {5, 0, 96, 45, 38},
{76, 30, 8, 14, 28}, {9, 60, 55, 62, 10}};
printMatrix(board, NUMBER_OF_ROWS);
cout << endl;
sumRows(board, NUMBER_OF_ROWS);
cout << endl;
largestInRows(board, NUMBER_OF_ROWS);
return 0;
}
//Place the definitions of the functions printMatrix, sumRows, and
// largestInRows as described previously here.

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Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays as Parameters to Functions (6 of 6)

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 Passing Partially-filled 2D Arrays as Parameters to Functions

• While passing a partially-filled 2D array to a function, both dimensions (rows and

columns) may be partially filled.
• Therefore, actual row count and actual column count should be specified in function parameters.

• However, recall that the size of second dimension of the actual array MUST also be specified
void largestInRows(int matrix[][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS], int noOfRows,
int noOfColumns)
{
int largest;
for (int row = 0; row < noOfRows; row++)
{
largest = matrix[row][0];
for (int col = 1; col < noOfColumns; col++)
if (largest < matrix[row][col])
largest = matrix[row][col];
cout << "The largest element of row " << (row + 1)
<< " = " << largest << endl;
}
}

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 Another Way to Declare a Two-Dimensional Array (optional)

• Can use typedef to define a two-dimensional array data type:

const int NUMBER_OF_ROWS = 20;
const int NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS = 10;
typedef int tableType[NUMBER_OF_ROWS][NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS];

• The above previous statement defines a two-dimensional array data type tableType.
• Now we can declare variables of this type.
tableType matrix; // This statement declares an array of 20 rows and 10 columns:

• You can also use this data type when declaring formal parameters, as shown below:
void initialize(tableType table)
{
for (int row = 0; row < NUMBER_OF_ROWS; row++)
for (int col = 0; col < NUMBER_OF_COLUMNS; col++)
table[row][col] = 0;
}

By first defining a data type, you do not need to keep checking the
exact number of columns when you declare a two-dimensional array
as a variable or formal parameter, or when you pass an array as a
parameter during a function call.
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 Multidimensional Arrays

• n-dimensional array: a collection of a fixed number of elements arranged in n

dimensions (n >= 1)
• Declaration syntax
dataType arrayName[intExp1][intExp2] ...
[intExpn];
double carDealers[10][5][7];

• Code to access a component

arrayName[intExp1][intExp2] ... [intExpn]
carDealers[5][3][2] = 15564.75; • When declaring a multidimensional
array as a formal parameter in a
• Initialization
function, you can omit the size of
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) the first dimension but not the
for (int j = 0; j < 5; j++) other dimensions.
for (int k = 0; k < 7; k++) • Multidimensional arrays are passed
carDealers[i][j][k] = 0.0; by reference only.
• A function cannot return a value of
the array type.
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 Quick Review (1 of 2)

• An array is a structured data type with a fixed number of components of the

same type
• Components are accessed using their relative positions in the array
• Elements of a one-dimensional array are arranged in the form of a list
• An array index can be any expression that evaluates to a nonnegative integer
• Must always be less than the size of the array
• The base address of an array is the address of the first array component
• When passing an array as an actual parameter, use only its name
• Passed by reference only
• A function cannot return an array type value
• Individual array components can be passed as parameters to functions

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 Quick Review (2 of 2)

• Parallel arrays hold related information

• In a two-dimensional array, the elements are arranged in a table form
• To access an element of a two-dimensional array, you need a pair of indices:
one for row position, one for column position
• In row processing, a two-dimensional array is processed one row at a time
• In column processing, a two-dimensional array is processed one column at a
time
• THE FOLLOWING TOPICS WILL BE COVERED LATERON AFTER POINTERS

• In C++, C-strings are null terminated and are stored in character arrays

• Commonly used C-string manipulation functions include: strcpy,

strncpy, strcmp, strncmp, and strlen

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 Home Assignment

• Read, understand and practice all the examples of Chapter 8

• Understand and Follow the Following Programming Examples

1. Code Detection

• Prepare the Exercise Questions (1-44) given at the end of Chapter 8

• Complete the Programming Exercises: Exercises 1, 2, 3, 4, 13, 17

• Suggested Programming Exercise for Assignment Grading: 19 (Don’t use pointers to

solve these exercises, just use the concepts learnt upto Arrays)

94 94
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 Programming Exercises

1. Write a program that takes an array named x as an input array from the user. Then,
create another array named y and copy the values from array x in reverse order.
- The program should copy the integers in x into y but in reverse order. i.e.,

y[0] = x[n - 1], . . ., y[n - 1] = x[0]

2. Write a program to determine whether an input array is palindrome or not.

- An array is palindrome if it is same when reversed. For example, {1, 2 , 3, 2, 1} is palindrome,
but {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is not a palindrome.

3. Write a program to print all non-repeating elements of an array. Assume that array is
already sorted. (HINT: The common loop operation of keeping track of previous value
may help here). For example
- If the input array is {0, 5, 10, 10, 20, 25, 32, 32, 32, 40, 50, 50}, then output should be: {0 5 10
20 25 32 40 50 55}

95 95
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 Programming Exercise 19

Airplane Seating Assignment: Write a program that can be used to assign seats for a
commercial airplane. The airplane has 13 rows, with six seats in each row. Rows 1 and 2
are first class, rows 3 through 7 are business class, and rows 8 through 13 are economy
class. Your program must prompt the user to enter the following information:
a. Ticket type (first class, business class, or economy class)
b. Desired seat
Output the seating plan in the following form:

• Here, * indicates that the seat is available;

X indicates that the seat is occupied.
• Make this a menu-driven program; show
the user’s choices and allow the user to
make the appropriate choices.
96 96
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