Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 9th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2018

Chapter 9
“GAS” , “POWER CYCLES”

Chapter 10
“VAPOR” POWER CYCLES

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the
working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.
• Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.
• Review the operation of reciprocating engines (O, D).
• Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Otto (O), Diesel (D), Stirling, and
Ericsson cycles (closed).
• Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle
with regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling,
reheating, and regeneration (open) .
• Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.
• Identify simplifying assumptions for second-law analysis of gas
power cycles.
• Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
2
9.1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices operate on
cycles (actual cycles)…are difficult to
analyze…(476, 1 ,1 ).

To make a analytical study of a cycle

feasible, ….utilize some idealization …(Fig.
9-1)(476, 1 ,5 ).
Fig. 9-1 Modeling (Idealization, 模
Such a cycle is called ideal cycle. ……
擬 , 理想化 ) is a powerful
(Fig. 9-2)( (476, 1 ,10 ).
engineering tool that provides great
insight and simplicity at the
expense of some loss in accuracy.

Fig. 9-2 The analysis of many

complex processes can be
reduced to a manageable
level by utilizing some
idealizations.
V ＝ C 3
Heat Engine （ HE, 熱機） , one kind of power
cycle device, are designed for the purpose of
converting thermal energy (Q) to work (w) (476,
3, 1)
Performance (thermal efficiency) of heat engines (476, 3, 2)

(9-1)

Qin Wnet
Heat Engine

4
…heat engine that operate “totally” reversible cycle, such as Carnot
cycle, have the “highest” thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels. (476, 4, 1)

Most cycles encountered in practice differ “significantly” from the

Carnot cycle, which makes it unsuitable as a realistic model. (476,
4, 7)

The ideal cycles are “internally” reversible processes, but unlike

the Carnot cycle, they are “not necessarily” externally reversible.
(476, 5, 1)

ηact < ηideal < ηCarnot

5
The idealizations and simplifications in the analysis of power cycles: (477,
2, 1)

1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does
not experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as
heat exchangers ( 熱交換器 friction-free, pressure drop-free)

2. All expansion (turbine) and compression (compressor) processes take

place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.

3. The pipes connecting the various components( 單元 , ex. turbine ) of a

system are well insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.

4. ΔKE = ΔPE = 0 (for most devices, ….excepting Nozzle and Diffuser)

(477, 3, 1)

6
 Property Diagram
On both the p-v and T-s diagrams ,the area enclosed by the process curves
of a cycle represents the “net” work produced during the cycle. (Fig. 9-4 )
(477, 4, 3)

P T

Wnet Wnet

=Qnet

v
a b
Fig. 9-4 On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area s
enclosed by the process curve represents the net
work (or net heat) of the cycle.
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the “area enclosed” by the cyclic (1-2-3-
4-1) curve to the “area under” the heat-addition process cyclic (a-1-2-3-
4-b) curve represents the thermal efficiency of the cycle. (478, 1, 8)

Any modification that “increases” the ratio of these two areas will also
“increase” the thermal efficiency of the cycle. (478, 1, 10) 7
9.2 THE CARNOT CYCLE (totally
reversible) AND ITS VALUE IN
ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of “ four ” P
“totally reversible” processes: (478, 1,1 )

1→2 : “isothermal” “ heat addition” (ΔS ↑),

2→3 : “isentropic” “expansion”,
3→4 : “isothermal” “heat rejection” (ΔS ↓),,
4→1 : “isentropic” “ compression”. v

T
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can
be executed between a heat source at TH and a sink at
TL(478, 1,7 )

(9-2 )
(Ex. 9-1)
s
FIGURE 9-5
P-v and T-s diagrams of a Carnot cycle.
9.2 THE CARNOT CYCLE (totally
reversible) AND ITS VALUE IN
ENGINEERING
(9-2 )

(Totally ) reversible isothermal heat transfer is very difficult to

achieve…..require very large heat exchanger and …take very long time.
(478, 2, 1)

It is not practical to build a (heat) engine that would operate on a cycle

that closely approx. the Carnot cycle. (478, 2, 4)

The value of the Carnot cycle comes from its being a “standard” against
which the actual and ideal cycles can be compared. (478, 3, 1)
9.2 THE CARNOT CYCLE (totally
reversible) AND ITS VALUE IN
ENGINEERING

(9-2 )

Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the avg.

temperature at which heat is supplied (TH) … or with a decrease in
the avg temp at which heat is rejected (TL). (478, 3, 6)
9.2 THE CARNOT CYCLE (totally
reversible) AND ITS VALUE IN
ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of “ four ”
“totally reversible” processes: (478, 1,1 )

1→2 : “isothermal” “ heat addition” (ΔS ↑), Thr

2→3 : “isentropic” “expansion”,
3→4 : “isothermal” “heat rejection” (ΔS ↓),, 4 devices （2
4→1 : “isentropic” “ compression”. T+2C）

Fig. 9-6 A steady-flow Carnot engine.

(A heat engine used to perform
Carnot cycle)
Fig. 6-38 P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. (Carnot heat engine)

Thr

1 device W1→2
（ piston -cylinder ）

W4→1 W2→3

W3→4

12
 9-3 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

Considering that air is predominantly 主要 80% N2 ~80% N2

nitrogen (N2)that hardly undergoes any
reactions in the combustion chamber, the
working fluid closely resembles 近似 air
all the times. (480, 1, 7)
Air-standard assumptions:(480, 3, 3)

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously

circulates in a closed loop and always
behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle
are internally reversible.
3. The combustion 燃燒 process is replaced
by a “heat-addition” process from an
external source (Fig. 9-8 b ). Fig. 9-8 The combustion
process/chamber (a) is replaced by a
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-addition process (b) in ideal
“heat-rejection” process that restores the
cycles.
working fluid to its initial state (Fig. 9-8 b ).
 9-3 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

Air-standard assumptions:(480, 3, 3)

1. The working fluid is air, which

continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle
are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an external
source (Fig. 9-8 b ).
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the Fig. 9-8The combustion
working fluid to its initial state (Fig. 9-8 b ). process/chamber (a) is replaced by a
heat-addition process (b) in ideal cycles.

Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable
(variable specific heats ). (480, 4, 4)
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to be air with
14
constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C). (480, 4, 3)
(Internal Combustion / Heat) Engines (= actual cycle)

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in

a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally
reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition
process from an external source (Fig. 9-8 b ).
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection
process that restores the working fluid to its initial state
(Fig. 9-8 b ).

Air-standard(/ideal) cycle

5. Assumption: Constant specific heats

Cold air-standard (/ ideal) cycle 15

 9-4 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Intake valve: location where the air/fuel is drawn into the
( 往覆式引擎 )
cylinder (482, 1, 6)
引入 Exhaust valve: location where the products are expelled
排出 from the cylinder (482, 1, 7)
Bore: the diameter of the position (482, 1,
5)
Top
Top dead center (TDC): the position of the
piston form the smallest volume (482, 1, 1)

衝程 Stroke: the distance between TDC and BDC is

the largest (482, 1, 4)

Bottom dead center (BDC): the position

Bottom of the piston form the largest volume (482,
1, 2)

Fig. 9-10 Nomenclature ( 命名 ) for

reciprocating engines.

16
 Fig.9-11 (a) Displacement( 位移 ) volume
Fig. 9-10 Nomenclature ( 命名 ) for
reciprocating engines. (b) clearance （清除） volume

Compression ratio 壓縮比

(r): ratio of the max to the Displacement volume: Clearance volume: min.
volume (Vmax-Vmin) between volume (Vmin) when the
min volume(482, 2, 4)
TDC and BDC (482, 2, 2) piston is at TDC(482, 2, 1)

(9-3) 17
9-4 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES( 往覆式引
擎)

Fig. 9-10

Fig. 9-12 The net work output of

a cycle is equivalent to the
product of the MEP and Vmax

W net ≡MEP * (Vmax – Vmin).

18
9-4 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES( 往覆式引
擎)

Fig. 9-11 W net ≡ MEP * (Vmax – Vmin).

（ Mean effectiv
e ） pressure (9-4)

（ Mean effective ） pressure: a “parameter” to compare the

performances of reciprocating engines of equal size (Vmax – Vmin) (482, 3, 8) 19
9-4 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
( 往覆式引擎 )

Reciprocating engines are classified as

(1) Spark-ignition (SI) engines ( 點火引燃 ) (Sec. 9-5)
(2) Compression-ignition (CI) engines( 壓縮引燃 ) (Sec. 9-6)
depend on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated 啟
動 (482, 4, 1)

20
9-5 OTTO CYCLE: THE “IDEAL” CYCLE FOR SPARK-
IGNITION (SI) ENGINES

In most spark-ignition (SI) engines （＝ gasoline engine ） , the

piston executes four complete stroke ( = two mechanical cycles)…
These engines are called four-stroke 四衝 / 行程 internal combustion
engine (four-stroke spark-ignition engines ). （ 482, 1, 4 ）

2→3 3→4→5 5→1 1→2

4

3
5
1
2

Fig. 9-13
9-5 OTTO CYCLE: THE “IDEAL” CYCLE FOR SPARK-
IGNITION (SI) ENGINES

Fig. 9-13 Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition

9-5 OTTO CYCLE: THE “IDEAL” CYCLE FOR SPARK-
IGNITION (SI) ENGINES
• The thermodynamics analysis of actual four—stroke or two-stroke cycles
described is not a easy task…..can be simplified if the air-standard
assumptions (Sec 9.3) are utilized. (484, 4, 1)
• The resulting cycle,…is the (ideal) Otto cycle. (484, 4, 3)

Fig. 9-13 (b) ideal Otto cycles in spark-ignition

Ideal

23
 Fig. 9-17 P-v diagram
Fig. 9-13
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition P-v diagram

Fig. 9-16 T-s diagram.

 The two-stroke engines are
Four-stroke cycle generally less efficient than their
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution four-stroke counterparts but they
Two-stroke cycle are relatively simple and
inexpensive, and they have high
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
power-to-weight and power-to-
volume ratios. (484, 2, 1)

Fig. 9-14 Schematic of a two-

stroke reciprocating engine.
25
W23 = 0

Fig. 9-13 (b)

For any process (9-5)

/ stroke 1st Law (4-17)

Process 2→3 (9-6a) (Fig. 7-

30)
Process 4→1
(9-6b) (Fig. 7-
30)

Isentropic Process 1→2 (9.9)

3→4 (9.7) Compression
V1 = V4, ratio
V2 = V3
26
(7.45) (9.8)
 c v (T 4  T1 ) T1 (T 4 / T1  1)
  1  1
c v (T 3  T 2 ) T 2 ( T 3 / T 2  1)
Isentropic Process 1→2
3→4

T2 T4 1
 r k 1  k 1
T1 T3 r

T2 T4 T T
   1,  4  3
T1 T3 T1 T 2

T1
  1
T2 T2
 r k 1
T1

1
 th .o tto  1  ( constant k ) (9.8)
r k 1 27
 (9.8)

k = 1.4
He
Air
CO2

(?) The pre-mature

ignition, called
Low ɳ O ？ auto-ignition ( 自
爆 ) , produce
engine knock .and
can cause engine
damage.(486, 3,
Fig. 9-18 Thermal efficiency of 10)
the ideal Otto cycle as a Fig. 9-19 The thermal efficiency
function of compression ratio of the Otto cycle increases with
(k = 1.4 for Air). the specific heat ratio k of the
working fluid. (Table A2)
28
Ex. 9-3
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the
compression process, air is at 100 kPa and 17℃, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is
transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition process.
Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature, determine
(a) the maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle,
(b) the net work output,
(c) the thermal efficiency, and
(d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.

Fig. 9-20 P-v diagram Fig. 9-15 T-s diagram.

 (a)

State 1: air, T1 = 290K, → u1 = 206.91, vr1 = 676.1

p.908
Process 1→2 Isentropic compression

(7.50)

║ ║
(1/8) (vr2 / 676.1)
u1 vr1
Therefore, vr2 = 84.51 p.908

→ u2 = 475.11, T2 =652K
→ P2 = P1 (T2/T1) (v1/v2)
T2 u2
= 100 kPa (652/290)(8)= 1799 kPa
Process 2→3 constant volume heat addition

qin – w out = u3– u2

800 = u3 – 475.11
p.909
→ u3 = 1275.11

→ P3 = P2 (T3/T2) (v2/v3)

= 1.799 MPa (1575/652)(1)

= 4.345 MPa

T3 vr3
 (b)

Process 3→4 Isentropic expansion

(v4/v3) = (vr4/vr3) (7.50)

║ ║ p.908
(8) (vr4/ 6.108)

Therefore, vr4 = 48.864

→ u4 = 588.74, T4 =795.6 K

wnet = q net = q in – q out

u4
= (u3-u2) - (u4-u1) T4
(c) Air-standard Cold air-standard

= 1 - (u4-u1)/(u3-u2)
=
= 52.3% (O)
Accounting for the variation of specific heats
= 1 – (8) 1-1.4 = 56.5% (X)

(d)

（ Mean effectiv
e ） pressure (9-4)

= wnet / (v1- v2)

= wnet / v1(1- 1/r) ….
9-6 DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION (CI) ENGINES (= diesel engine)
In spark-ignition (SI) engines, the “air-fuel” is compressed to a temperature
that is “below” the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion
process is initiated by firing a spark 火星 plug.(489, 1, 4)
In compression-ignition (CI) engines, the “air” is compressed to a
temperature that is “above” the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel, and the
combustion started as fuel injected into the hot air.(489, 1, 8)

(t=0)
Fig. 9-21 In diesel engines,
the spark plug is replaced by
a fuel injector, and only air is
compressed during the
compression process.
Actual
SI CI
Otto Diesel Ideal
9-6 DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION (CI) ENGINES (= diesel engine)
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during
the compression stroke, eliminating the possibility Bef Comb Aft Comb
of auto-ignition 自爆 (engine knock). Therefore,
P2=P3
diesel engines can be designed to operate at
much “higher” compression ratios than SI
engines, typically between 12 and 24. .(490, 1, 3)

Fig.9-22
T-s and
p-v
(t=0)

Fig. 9-21 In
diesel engines,

SI CI Actual
Otto Diesel Ideal S1=S2 S3=S4
 9.5 Ideal Otto cycle 9.6 Ideal Diesel cycle

2-3 constant-pressure heat

addition
2-3 constant-volume heat
addition

Fig. 9-17 P-v diagram

Fig.9-22
T-s and
p-v
Fig. 9-16 T-s diagram
36
 (9-5) or (7-
21)
W23 ≠ 0

Process 2→3

(9-5) or
(3-1)
(7-21)
(9-10a)

Process 4→1
(9-10b)
(9-5) or
(7-21) (9-10a)
(9-10b)
∴

(9- Cutoff …
11) ratio
>1

(9-12)
37
Fig.9-22
 (9-10b)
(7.45)
(9-10a)

isentropic

P2=P3
Cutoff
ratio (9-
11)
T2 T4 r
 r k 1  ( c ) k -1
T1 T3 r

T 4 T3
 /  ( rc ) k 1
T1 T 2
T3
rck 1 ( ) 1
1 1 T2
 th, Diesel  1  ( ) k 1[ ]
k r T
( 3 ) 1
T2
P2V 2 P3V 3 T3 V 3
    rc
T2 T3 T2 V 2

(9-12) 38
 (9-12)
(9.8)

SI > CI

(9-13) for the same compression ratio r

Fig. 9-23 Thermal

efficiency of the
ideal Diesel cycle as
a function of
compression and
cutoff ratios
(kAir=1.4).

39
Ex. 9-4
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a
compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 2 . At the
beginning of the compression process, the working
fluid is at 100 kPa, 27℃, and 1917 cm3. Utilizing the
cold-air-standard assumptions, determine
(a) the temperature and pressure at the end of each
process,
(b) the net work output, the thermal efficiency, and
(d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.

Fig.9-22

R = 0.287 kPa. m3/kg . K

Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg . K
} k = 1.4
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg . K
 (a)

V2 = V1/ 18 = 1917/ 8 = 106.5 cm 3

V3 =2 V2= 106.5*2 = 213 cm 3

V4 = V1 = 1917 cm3

State 1: air, P1 = 100 kPa

Process 1→2 Isentropic compression, ideal gas, constant specific heat

→ T2 = T1 (v1/v2) k-1 = (300 K) (18) 1.4-1 =953 K

→ P2 = P1 (v1/v2) k = (100 kPa) (18)1.4= 5720kPa

Fig.7-34
 (a)

Process 2→3 constant P heat addition, ideal gas

→ P3 = P2 = 5720 kPa

→ P3 V3/T3 = P2 V2/T2 → T3 = T2 (v3/v2) =1906K

Process 3→4 Isentropic compression, ideal gas, constant specific heat

→ T4 = T3 (v3/v4) k-1 = 791 K

→ P4 = P3(v3/v4) k = 264 kPa

Fig.7-34
4
(b)
Process 2→3

(9-
10a)
Process 4→1
(9-10b)

m = P1 V1/RT1
= (100 kPa) (1917 * 10-6 m3) / ( 0.287 kPa. m3/kg . K) (300K)

Q out = m q out = ; Q in= m q in

W net = Q in - Q out =
(9-10a)
(9-10b)
∴
(c)

（ Mean effectiv
e ） pressure (9-4)

44
 QUESTIONS
Dual cycle: A more realistic Diesel engines operate at
ideal cycle model for modern, higher air-fuel ratios than
high-speed compression ignition gasoline engines. Why?
engine. .(500, 3, 13)
Despite higher power to
weight ratios, two-stroke
engines are not used in
automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel
engines are among the
most efficient power
producing devices (about
50%). Why?
What is a turbocharger?
Why are they mostly used
in diesel engines
Fig. 9-24 P-v diagram of compared to gasoline
engines.
an ideal dual cycle (Otto + Diesel).
45
 9.7 STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
Stirling cycle
• 1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
• 2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
• 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
• 4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to
the working fluid)

A regenerator is a device that

borrows energy from the working
fluid during one part of the cycle
and pays it back (without
interest) during another part.
46
The Stirling and Ericsson cycles Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are
give a message: Regeneration totally reversible, as is the Carnot cycle,
and thus:
can increase efficiency.

The Ericsson cycle is very much like the

Stirling cycle, except that the two constant-
volume processes are replaced by two
constant-pressure processes.

The execution of the Stirling cycle. A steady-flow Ericsson engine.

47
9-8 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
Gas turbine operate on open cycle. (497, 1, 4)

1→2 Fresh air is drawn into the compressor, where the temperature and
pressure are raised. (497, 1, 5)
2→3 High-pressure air proceed into combustion chamber, where fuel is burned at
constant pressure. (497, 1, 6)
3→4 The resulting high-temperature gases then enter turbine, where…they produce
work. (497, 1, 8)
4 The exhaust gases leaving the turbine. (497, 1, 9)

WC WT

Fig. 9-30 An open-cycle gas-turbine engine.

(actual)
9-8 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
The open cycle gas-turbine can be modeled as closed cycle, by utilizing air
standard assumption….. BRAYTON CYCLE (497, 2, 1) (Fig. 9-31)
1→2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) (497, 2, 9)
2→3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3→4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4→1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

WC WT

WC
WT

W net = W T – W c

Fig. 9-30 An open-cycle gas-turbine Fig. 9-31 A closed-cycle gas-turbine

engine. (actual) engine.(ideal / Brayton, air-standard)
49
 (5-36)

One inlet, one exit

Unit mass
(Δpe = 0; Δke = 0)
(9-15) or
(5-40)

(9-16a) Process 2→3

(4-28)
S1=S2 S3=S4 (9-16b) Process 4→1

Isentropic Process
1→2 (9-
3→4 18)
Pressure ratio

(7. 46)
Fig. 9-32 T-s and P-v
diagrams for the ideal H.W.
(9-
Brayton cycle. 17) 50
 (5-36)

w turb, out One inlet, one exit

Unit mass
(Δpe = 0; Δke = 0)
(9-15) or
(5-40)

w comp, in
Isentropic Process
1→2
3→4

h2 - h1 = w comp, in (9. 16 c)

h3 - h4 = w turb, out (9. 16 d)

Fig. 9-32 T-s and P-v

diagrams for the ideal
Brayton cycle.
Eqn (9-17) shows that under the cold
air-standard assumptions, the thermal (9-
efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle 17)
depends on the pressure ratio (rp) of
the gas turbine, and the specific heat
ratio (k) of the working fluid.(498, 1, 6)

W max

Fig. 9-33 Thermal

efficiency of the ideal
Brayton cycle as a
function of the pressure
ratio (rp).
(kAir=1.4).

rp = 8.2 52
The highest temperature (T3, Tmax) in the cycle
occurs at the end of the combustion process
(state 3) is limited by the maximum
temperature that the turbine blades can
withstand. (498, 2, 1)

This also limits the pressure ratios that can be

used in the cycle. (498, 2, 3)
Fig. 9-32 T-s

Fig. 9-34 For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax,

the net work of the Brayton cycle first
increases with the pressure ratio, then
reaches a maximum at rp = (Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k -
1)]
, and finally decreases.
 Fig. 9-33 Thermal
W max efficiency of the ideal
Brayton cycle as a
function of the pressure
ratio (rp).
(kAir=1.4).

rp = 8.2

Fig. 9-34 For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax,

the net work of the Brayton cycle first
increases with the pressure ratio, then
reaches a maximum at rp = (Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k -
1)]
, and finally decreases.
The air in gas turbines supplies perform two important functions:
It supplies the necessary oxidant ( 氧化劑 ) for the combustion of the
fuel, and it serves as a coolant ( 冷卻劑 ) to keep the temperature of
various components within safe limits (T3, Tmax). An air–fuel ratio of 50
or above is not uncommon. (498, 3, 1)

The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines are aircraft

propulsion 航空推進 and electric power generation 電力產生 .
(498, 4, 1)
 In gas turbines power plants, the ratio of compressor work
（ Wc ） to (/) the turbine work (WT), called the back work
ratio, is very high. (499, 2, 1) (Fig. 9-35)

W net

WC W net
WT

WT

WC
W net = W T – W c Fig. 9-35 The fraction of the
turbine work (WT) used to drive
Fig. 9-31 A closed-cycle gas-turbine
the compressor (WC) is called the
engine.(ideal / Brayton, air-standard)
56 back work ratio (BWR).
W net = W T – W c, BWR = W c / W T
 Development of Gas Turbines
Efforts to improve the cycle efficiency concentrate in three areas (499, 1, 7)
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures (T3 --->T3’)

2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbo-machinery components (turbines,

compressors):
3. Adding modifications 修正 to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating). → Sec. 9-9, 9-10

W net = W T – W c

Fig. 9-31 A closed-cycle gas-turbine Fig. 9-32 (a) 57

engine.(ideal / Brayton, air-standard)
Ex. 9-6
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an
ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of
8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the
compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine
inlet. Utilizing the air-standard
assumptions, determine
a)the gas temperature at the exits ( 出口 ) of
the compressor and the turbine, and
b)the back work ratio rbw, and S1=S2 S3=S4
c) the thermal efficiency.
P2=P3

BRAYTON CYCLE (497, 2, 7)

1→2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
(497, 2, 9)
2→3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3→4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
P1=P4
4→1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
 (a)

State 1: air, T1 = 300K, → h1 = 300.19, Pr1 = 1.386

Process 1→2 Isentropic compression (p.908)

(7.49)
Fig. 9-36

║ ║
(8) (Pr2 / 1.386)

Therefore, Pr2 = 11.09 h1 Pr1

→ h2 = 544.35, T2 =540 K h2
T2 Pr2
(compressor exit)
State 3: air, T3= 1300K, → h3 = 1395.97, Pr3 =330.9

Process 3→4 isentropic expansion

(p.909)

4 r4 (7.49)

3 r3

Fig. 9-36
║ ║ h3 Pr3
(1/8) (Pr4 / 330.9)

Therefore, Pr4= 41.36

→ h4 = 789.37, T4 =770 K
(turbine exit)
h4 Pr4
(b)

(9. 16 c)
h2 - h1 = w comp, in w turb, out

= 544.35 – 300.19

w comp, in
h3 – h4 = w turb, out (9. 16 d)

Fig. 9-36
= 1395.97-789.37

r bw ≡ W comp / W turb

(c) (6.4)

q in = h3 – h2

wnet = w turb, out - w comp, in

(c) Air-standard Cold air-standard

= 42.6%(O)
= (9-
17)
= 44.8% (X)
Deviation ( 偏離 ) of Actual Gas-
Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
△P↓

The actual gas-turbine cycle differ from the

ideal Brayton cycle on several accounts.
(502, 1, 1)

For one thing, some “pressure drop” during

the heat-addition and heat-rejection △s↑
process(502, 1, 2) Fig. 9-37 The deviation of an
actual gas-turbine cycle （ ---- ）
Actual work input to the compressors is from the ideal Brayton cycle (—)
as a result of irreversibilities.
more and actual work output from turbine is
less because of “Irreversibilities” (502, 1, 4)

63
Deviation ( 偏離 ) of Actual Gas-
Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
Turbine

Isentropic efficiencies （ Sec 7-12 ） of the

compressor and turbine (502, 1, 7)
Compressor

Compressor
Fig. 9-37
(9-19) Turbine (9-20)

(9-15) (5-40)

(7-62) (7-60)
$$$
qregen qin

Useful
Fig. 9-30 An open-cycle gas-turbine ,
Waste
engine. (actual) Fig. 9-39

Fig. 9-32
Fig. 9-40
9.9 THE BRAYTON CYCLE
WITH REGENERATION （再生）
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature (T4) of the exhaust gas leaving the
turbine is often considerably higher than the temperature (T2) of the air
leaving the compressor. (504, 1, 1)

Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor (2) can be heated by
the hot exhaust gases (4) in a counter-flow heat exchanger (a regenerator
( 再生器 ) or a recuperator). (504, 1, 3)

The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result of

regeneration ….decreases the heat input (thus fuel) requirement for the same
work output. (504, 2, 1)

Fig. 9-32 (a)

$$$
qregen qin

Useful
Fig. 9-30 An open-cycle gas-turbine ,
Waste
engine. (actual) Fig. 9-39

q in, without Regen

Fig. 9-32 (a)

Fig. 9-40 T-s diagram of a
Brayton cycle with
 (9- (9-15)
21) (5-40)

(9-
(Ideal 22)
)

(9-
∴ 23)
Effectiveness of regenerator
- (air standard assumptions)

Fig. 9-40 T-s diagram of a Brayton (9-

cycle with regeneration. 24)
Cold air standard assumptions

q in, without Regen → q in,

(9-
H.W. 25)
Effectiveness under cold-air
(9- standard assumptions 68
 Under cold-air
standard assumptions
(9-25)

69

Fig 9-41 Thermal efficiency of the Fig. 9-33

ideal Brayton cycle with and
without (Fig. 9-33) regeneration.
(k = 1.4)
 Under cold-air
standard assumptions
(9-25)

The thermal efficiency depends on the

ratio of (505, 2, 4)
1. minimum to maximum temp (T1/T3)
2. pressure ratio. (rp=P2/P1)

Regeneration is most effective(505, 2, 8)

1. at ”lower” pressure ratios
70 2. ”low” minimum-to-maximum
temperature ratios.
Fig 9-41 Thermal efficiency of the
ideal Brayton cycle with and
without (Fig. 9-32) regeneration.
70
(k = 1.4)
9.10 THE BRAYTON CYCLE
WITH INTERCOOLING,
REHEATING, AND
REGENERATION

q q

WC

q
Fig. 9-30 An open-cycle gas-
Fig. 9-44 A gas-turbine engine with
turbine engine.
1. two-stage compression with intercooling (2-
1.One -stage compression,
>3),
2. one -stage expansion,
2. two-stage expansion with reheating(7→8), 71
3. without regeneration.
3. and regeneration (9→10),.,.
 9.10 THE BRAYTON CYCLE For minimizing work input to
WITH INTERCOOLING, compressor and maximizing
REHEATING, AND work output from turbine:(507, 1, 2)

REGENERATION
Less qout (9.26)

q (7-59)↑
lower qin q

Fig. 9-44 A gas-turbine engine with Fig. 9-45

1. two-stage compression with intercooling (2→3),
2. two-stage expansion with reheating (7→8), 72
3. and regeneration (9→10),.
Multistage “compression” with “intercooling”: The work required to
compress a gas between two specified pressures can be decreased by
carrying out the compression process in stages and cooling the gas in
between. This keeps the specific volume as “low” as possible. (506, 1, 4) (Fig. 9-
43 )
Multistage “expansion” with “reheating” keeps the specific volume of the working
fluid as “high” as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work
output. (506, 2, 3)
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration. Why?

Fig. 9-43 Comparison of

work inputs to

1. a single-stage
compressor (1AC)

2. a two-stage
compressor with
intercooling
(1ABD).

Fig.9-32 ideal Brayton cycle73

9-11 IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES( 渦輪推進循環 )
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft （航空器） because
they are light and compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.(510 ,1,
1)
“Aircraft” gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion
cycle.(510 ,1, 2)
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in
that the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine.
(510 ,1, 3)
Instead, they are expanded to a pressure such that the power produced by
the turbine (WT) is just sufficient (~) to drive the compressor (Wc) and the
auxiliary equipment. (510 ,1, 6)
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. (510 ,1, 8)
The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high pressure are subsequently
“accelerated” in a nozzle to provide the “thrust” 推力 to propel the
aircraft. (510 ,1, 9)
FIG. 9-48 In jet engines, the
high-temperature and high-
pressure gases leaving the
turbine are accelerated in a
nozzle to provide thrust （推 74
力） .
 Fig. 9-29 (open-cycle)
gas-turbine engine.

Fig. 9-49 (open-

cycle (turbojet)
engine
Combustion
Compressor Turbine
chamber

Fig. 9-48
75
 wC wT

FIG. 9-48 Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal
turbojet cycle.
76
WT=Wc

1→2 : Pressure rises slightly …in the diffuser. (510, 3, 2)

2→3 : Air is compressed by the compressor. (510, 3, 3)
3→4 : Air is mixed with fuel in the combustion chamber, …burned at constant P.
(510 3, 3)
4→5 : The high-T and high-P gases expanded in the turbine, producing “enough
= ” power to drive the compressor. (510, 3, 5)
5→6: the gas expand in a nozzle and leave at high velocity. (510, 3, 7)
Thrust 推力 (propulsive force)-momentum conservation

(9-27)

Propulsive power( 推進
力)
(9-28)

Propulsive efficiency( 推進效

率)
(9-29) Qin

FIG. 9-49 Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal
turbojet cycle.
FIG. 9-49 Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal
turbojet cycle.

FIG. 9-50 Propulsive power (Wp) is the thrust (F) acting on the aircraft
through a distance (dS) per unit time (dt).
Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-
driven, with propellers powered by engines
essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-
propulsion-driven engines have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts
have been made to combine the desirable
characteristics of both in one engine.
Energy supplied to an aircraft
Two such modifications are the propjet engine
and the turbofan engine. (from the burning of a fuel)
manifests itself in various forms.

A turbofan engine. The most widely used

engine in aircraft
propulsion is the
turbofan (or fanjet)
engine wherein a large
fan driven by the
turbine forces a
considerable amount
of air through a duct
(cowl) surrounding the
engine.
79
 A modern jet engine
used to power Boeing
777 aircraft. This is a
Pratt & Whitney
PW4084 turbofan
capable of producing
374 kN of thrust. It is
4.87 m long, has a 2.84
m diameter fan, and it
weighs 6800 kg.

Various engine types:

Turbofan, Propjet, Ramjet, Sacramjet, Rocket

A turboprop engine. A ramjet engine.

80
9-12 SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
The ideal Carnot, Ericssion, and Stirling cycles are totally reversible; thus
they do not involve any irreversibilities. .(516,1, 1)
The ideal Otto, Diesel, and Brayton cycles(*), however, are only internally
reversible, and they may involve irreversibilities.(516 ,1, 2)
A second-law analysis of these cycles(*) reveals where the largest
irreversibilities and where to start improvements. (516 ,1, 4)
(8-33)
Exergy destruction for
a closed system
(7-68) (9-30)

(7-71)

For a steady- (8-39)

flow system (9-31)

(7-84)
For a steady-
flow system (9-31)

Steady-flow, one-inlet, one-exit, unit mass

 
q in q out     q in q out
x dest  T0 s gen  T0 (s e - s i -  ) (9-32) x dest  T0 s gen  T0 (s e - s e -  )
Tb,in Tb,out Tb,in Tb,out

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a s  0
sink, exergy destruction:

(9-34)

For a cycle with heat transfer

with several sources and
sinks, exergy destruction:

(9-33)
Closed system exergy (ex. Otto, Diesel)

(9-35)

Stream exergy (ex. Brayton )

(9-36)

83
Summary
• Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard sssumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines
• Stirling and Ericsson cycles
• Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
• The Brayton cycle with regeneration
• The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration
• Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
• Second-law analysis of gas power cycles
84