Chapter 4

Protocols

1 Chapter 4: Protocols Prep.By Tewodros. T

 Lecture Outline
Rules & Network Protocols
Network Protocols and Standards
Protocol suites & Industry Standards
Protocols in a layered architecture
i. The OSI Model
ii. The TCP/IP Model
iii. Comparing OSI Model with TCP/IP Model

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 4.1. What’s a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
req.
Hi
TCP connection
What is the reply.
time? Get http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/index.htm
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocol?

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 Network protocols are a set of rules outlining how connected devices communicate
across a network to exchange information easily and safely.
 Protocols serve as a common language for devices to enable communication irrespective
of differences in software, hardware, or internal processes.
4.2. Network Protocols and Standards
 A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications
 A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated
 for instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the first
computer must perform the following general steps
 break the data into small sections called packets
 add addressing information to the packets identifying the source and destination
computers
 deliver the data to the network interface card for transmission over the network
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 Protocols are a rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
An agreement b/n sender and receiver on how the message will be sent
 What: the structure/format of the data,
 How: wireless or wired, broadcasted…?
 When: check medium is free, check receiver ready to receive

 The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse
order
 accept the data from the NIC
 remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting
computer
 reassemble the packets of data in to the original message
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  The key elements of a protocol
 syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data
 semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits
 timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent
 Functions of protocols
 each device must perform the same steps the same way so that the data will
arrive and reassemble properly;
 if one device uses a protocol with different steps, the two devices will not be
able to communicate with each other

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 Syntax (What is to be communicated?) : presentation order of the data
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be
the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver,
and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
Semantics (How it is to be communicated?) –
Semantics define the interpretation of the data that is being sent.
For example, the semantics could define that if the last two bits of the receiver’s
address field contain a 00, it means that the sender and the receiver are on the same
network.
Timing (When it should be communicated?)
 – This refers to an agreement between the sender and the receiver about data
transmission rates and duration. For instance, a protocol could demand that the
sender must send 1000 bytes and then wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver
before sending any more data.
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 Key Elements of protocols
Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data
It indicates how to read the data in the form of bits or fields. It
also decides the order in which the data is presented to the
receiver.
Example: A protocol might expect that the size of a data packet
will be 16 bits. In which, the first 4 bits are the sender’s address,
the next 4 bits are the receiver’s address, the next 4 bits are the
check-sum bits, and the last 4 bits will contain the message. So,
every communication that is following that protocol should send
16-bit data.
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 Key Elements of protocols
Semantics​: refers to the structure or format of the data
It specifies which field defines what action. It defines how a particular
section of bits or pattern can be interpreted, and what action needs to be
taken. It includes control information for coordination and error
handling.
Example: It interprets whether the bits of address identify the route to be
taken or the final destination of the message or something else.

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 Key Elements of protocols
Timing​: Timing refers to two characteristics:
I. when the data should be sent?
II. what will be the speed of sending and receiving the data?
It performs speed matching, sequencing and flow control of the data items.
Example: A sender can send the data at a speed of 100 Mbps, but the receiver
can consume it only at a speed of 20 Mbps, then there may be data losses or
the packets might get dropped. So, proper synchronization must be there
between a sender and a receiver.
synchronization: The fact of happening at the same time, or the act of
making things happen at the same time:

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 4.3. Protocol suites & Industry Standards

 The following are categories of functions that form the basis of protocols
 encapsulation
 segmentation and reassembly
 connection control
 addressing
 multiplexing
 transmission services
a) Encapsulation
• the inclusion of control information to data is called encapsulation. Each
frame contains not only data but also control information
• such control information falls into three categories: address (sender/receiver),
error-detecting code and protocol control (information about protocol functions)
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  protocol suite: is a set of protocols that work together to provide
comprehensive network communication services.
 A protocol suite may be specified by a standards organization or
developed by a vendor.
 Adding additional/control info to original message is called
Encapsulation

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b) Segmentation (by the sender also called fragmentation) and reassembly (by the
receiver)
 a block of data for transmission is of some bounded size
 lower level protocols may need to break the data up into blocks of some
bounded size and this process is called segmentation
reasons for segmentation:
 the communication network may only accept blocks of data up to a certain
size
 error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame size; fewer bits
need to be retransmitted when a frame gets corrupted
 facilitates more equitable access to shared transmission facilities (for
example, without maximum block size, one station could monopolize a
multipoint medium)

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Ethernet IEEE 802.3 standard defined the minimum Ethernet frame size
as 64 bytes and the maximum as 1518 bytes
Segmentation disadvantages
since a frame contains certain amount of control information, the
smaller the block size, the greater the percentage overhead
frame arrivals may generate an interrupt that must be serviced; hence
smaller blocks result in more interrupts
more time is spent processing smaller, more numerous frames
 the counterpart of segmentation is reassembly. on receipt, the receiving
device must reassemble the segmented data into a message appropriate to
the application

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c. Connection control :- two types of protocols (services)
I. connectionless service
• the packets are sent from one party to another with no need
for connection establishment or connection release.
• the packets are not numbered, they may be delayed, lost, or
arrive out of sequence; there is no acknowledgement either
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol), one of the transport layer
protocols, is connectionless
• Application:-Time sensitive traffic

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II. connection-oriented service
 in connection-oriented data transfer, a logical association or connection is
established between the communicating computers (devices)
 long sustained session
 orderly and timely delivery of packets, e.g., FTP
 TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is connection-oriented
Three phases are involved
1. connection establishment (agreement to exchange data)
2. data transfer (data and control information exchanged)
3. connection termination (termination request) - by any of the two parties
 the key characteristics of connection-oriented data transfer is that sequencing
is used
 each side sequentially numbers the frames that it sends to the other side
Connection establishment: exchanging buffer capability, agree on size of packet etc

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 because each side remembers that it is engaged in a logical connection, it can keep track
of both outgoing numbers, which it generates, and incoming numbers which are
generated by the other side
Sequencing supports three main functions
I. ordered delivery: frames may not arrive in the order in which they were sent,
because they may traverse different paths
II. flow control: a receiving station has to limit the amount or rate of data that is sent
by a transmitting station
III.error control: error control is implemented as two separate functions; error
detection and retransmission
• if an error is detected, the receiver discards the frame
• upon failing to receive an acknowledgement to the frame in a specified reasonable
time, the sender retransmits the frame
• some protocols also employ error correction which enables the receiver not only
to detect errors but, in some cases, to correct them

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Flow control:
 Data flow management (regulates the amount of data a source can send without
overwhelming the receiver).
 making sure we don’t send more packets when the receive buffer is already full,
 If the sender sends at higher flow than the receiver receiving capability-data overflow will
occur some of the message will be lost
Flow control technique
 the simplest form of flow control is stop-and-wait procedure in which each frame must be
acknowledged before the next can be sent.
 more efficient protocols involve some form of credit provided to the transmitter, which is
the amount of frames that can be transmitted without an acknowledgement; e.g. sliding
window technique

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d) addressing
• a unique address is associated with each end-system in a configuration (e.g.
workstation, server) and each intermediate system (e.g. router)
• an example is an IP address, MAC addressing
e) Multiplexing/muxing
• occurs when multiple connections share a single connection (multiple access)
• is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of information over a
communications link at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal.
• When the signal reaches its destination, a process called demultiplexing, or
demuxing, recovers the separate signals and outputs them to individual lines.
f) transmission services
• a variety of additional services can be provided
• priority: messages such as control messages may need to get through to the
destination station with minimum delay
• security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be invoked
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 4.4. Protocols in a layered architecture

 protocols that work together to provide a layer or layers of the model are known as a protocol
stack or suite, e.g. TCP/IP
• each layer handles a different part of the communications process and has its own protocol
Data Communication Standards:- standards are essential for interoperability.
 Interoperability: all manufacturer devices/equipment communicate seamlessly in data
communication
 data communication standards fall into two categories
I. De facto standards: that have not been approved by an organized body; mostly set by
manufacturers
II. De jure standards: those legislated by an officially recognized body such as:
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standards Sector
(ITU-T)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
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Some examples of de facto standards include:
 Hayes command set for controlling modems
 Kermit Communications Protocol
 Xmodem Communications Protocol
 Hewlett-Packard Printer Control Language (PCL) for laser printers
 PostScript page description language for laser printers
 The QWERTY system for typewriters and keyboards

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 Network (Reference) Models
 Consider an example of sending a letter
 Hierarchy
 there are three different activities at the
sender side and another three at the
receiver’s side
 the tasks must be done in the order given
in the hierarchy
 Layers and Services
 within a single machine, each layer uses
the services immediately below it and
provides services for the layer
immediately above it
 between machines, layer x on one
machine communicates with layer x on
another machine
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 Why layering?
• reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)
• standardizes interfaces (between layers)
• facilitates modular engineering (different teams work on different
modules)
• assures interoperable technology
• accelerates evolution of networking technology
• simplifies teaching and learning

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 Two important Network Models or architectures
I. The ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
II. The TCP/IP Reference Model
The OSI Reference Model
 consists of 7 layers and first step toward international standardization of the
protocols.
 was never fully implemented as a protocol stack, but a good theoretical model
 Open – to connect open systems or systems that are open for communication
with other systems
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)-organization who develop
OSI
 OSI: it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.

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 Principles to arrive at the 7 layers
 a layer should be created at different level of abstraction
 a layer should perform a well-defined function
 the function of each layer should be chosen towards defining
internationally standardized protocols
 the number of layers should be optimal
• large enough so that distinct functions should not be put together, and
• small enough so that the architecture does not become unwieldy

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 OSI and TCP/IP Layers Correspondence

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 Data Encapsulation and Decapsulation in OSI model
Each layer of OSI/TCP/IP add some control or management information on the data to
be sent. This is said to be Encapsulation.
At the receiver side reverse process is done i.e. removing the header and getting the
original message at the application layer-Decapsulation
Data created at 7th layer and goes to the next layer below. When layer accept data from
it’s above layer and passes it to next layer this is said to be “adjacent layer interaction”
The data at each OSI layer is said to be PDU (protocol data unit)-both the data and
additional information(header and trailer ) and we call the data at 7th layer as L7 PDU,
at 6th layer as L6 PDU, etc.…
Though the layers are independent, they are interlinked. There is a logical connection b/n
layers at sender and receiver.
Layers participating at intermediate node is the first three(they will not create data, etc.)

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 Data Encapsulation and Decapsulation in OSI model

The data link layer is the only layer which add header and
trailer
The physical layer don’t have both header and trailer
Encapsulation: the process of adding header and trailer
information
Encapsulation : adds information to a packet as it travels to its
destination.
Decapsulation :reverses the process by removing the info, so a
destination device can read the original data.
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 Encapsulation and decapsulation using the OSI model

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 The OSI Model (Encapsulation)
Application
Application Data Data Application
Header of
Application
Application Application
Layer
Layer AH Data Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer
PH AH Data Layer

Session Session
Layer SH PH AH Data Layer

Transport Transport
Layer TH SH PH AH Data Layer

Network NH TH SH PH AH Data Network

Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer DH NH TH SH PH AH Data Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Bits Layer

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 The TCP/IP Reference Model
 TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
 used by ARPANET and its successor the Internet
design goals
the ability to connect multiple networks (internetworking) in a seamless way
the network should be able to survive loss of subnet hardware, i.e., the
connection must remain intact as long as the source and destination machines are
properly functioning
flexible architecture to accommodate requirements of different applications -
ranging from transferring files to real-time speech transmission
has 4 (or 5 depending on how you see it) layers: Application, Transport, Internet
(Internetwork), Host-to-network (some split it into Physical and Data Link)
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 ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)
The ARPANET was a research network sponsored by the DoD (U.S.
Department of Defense). It eventually connected hundreds of universities and
government installations, using leased telephone lines.
ARPANET fails to incorporate or add new network technologies such as
satellite network and radio wave network
Given the DoD’s worry that some of its precious hosts, routers, and
internetwork gateways might get blown to pieces at a moment’s notice by an
attack from the Soviet Union, another major goal was that the network be able
to survive loss of subnet hardware, without existing conversations being broken
off.

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 Encapsulation/Decapsulation in TCP/IP

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Chapter 4: Protocols Prep.By Tewodros. T
 TCP/IP Encapsulation
User data

Application
Application
Header User data

TCP
TCP Header Application data

IP TCP segment

IP Header TCP Header Application data

Ethernet
IP datagram
Driver
Ethernet Ethernet
Header
IP Header TCP Header Application data Trailer

Ethernet frame

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Thank You !!!
 Quiz (10%)
1. List and explain all Key Elements of protocol
2. How many layers are there in OSI and TCP/IP Model
3. Which device can encapsulate and decapsulate at the same time in one
communication?
4. Why segmentation is needed?
5. List at least 3 functions of protocols

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