Chapter 22

Network Layer:
Delivery, Forwarding,
and Routing

22.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 22-1 DELIVERY

The network layer supervises the handling of the

packets by the underlying physical networks. We
define this handling as the delivery of a packet..

Topics discussed in this section:

Direct Versus Indirect Delivery

22.2
 Figure 22.1 Direct and indirect delivery

22.3
 22-2 FORWARDING

Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to

its destination. Forwarding requires a host or a router
to have a routing table.. When a host has a packet to
send or when a router has received a packet to be
forwarded, it looks at this table to find the route to the
final destination.

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table

22.5
 22-2 FORWARDING

1.Forwarding Techniques

Topics discussed in this section:

Next-Hop Method Versus Route Method

Network-Specific Method Versus Host-Specific Method

Default Method

2.Forwarding Process
3.Routing Table

22.6
 Figure 22.2 Route method versus next-hop method

22.7
 22-2 FORWARDING

1.Forwarding Techniques

Topics discussed in this section:

Next-Hop Method Versus Route Method

Network-Specific Method Versus Host-Specific Method

Default Method

22.8
Figure 22.3 Host-specific versus network-specific method
 22-2 FORWARDING

1.Forwarding Techniques

Topics discussed in this section:

Next-Hop Method Versus Route Method

Network-Specific Method Versus Host-Specific Method

Default Method

22.
10
 22-2 FORWARDING

1.Forwarding Techniques

Topics discussed in this section:

Next-Hop Method Versus Route Method

Network-Specific Method Versus Host-Specific Method

Default Method

2.Forwarding Process
3.Routing Table

22.
11
 Figure 22.4 Default method

22.
12
 22-2 FORWARDING

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process

Simplified forwarding Address

aggregation
Routing Table

22.13
 Figure 22.5 Simplified forwarding module in classless
address

22.
14
 Note

In classless addressing, we need at least

four columns in a routing table.

22.
15
 Figure 22.6 Configuration for Example
22.1

22.16
 22-2 FORWARDING

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process

Simplified forwarding Address

aggregation
Routing Table

22.17
 Figure 22.7 Address aggregation

22.18
 22-2 FORWARDING

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table
Static Routing Table
Dynamic Routing Table
Format

22.19
Static Routing Table
A static routing table contains information entered manually.
The administrator enters the route for each destination into the
table.
When a table is created, it cannot update automatically when
there is a change in the Internet.
Disadvantage
It is poor strategy to use a static routing table in a big internet
such as the Internet.
 22-2 FORWARDING

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table
Static Routing Table
Dynamic Routing Table
Format

22.21
Dynamic Routing Table
A dynamic routing table is updated periodically by using one of
the dynamic routing protocols such as RIP, OSPF, or BGP.
Advantage
Whenever there is a change in the Internet, such as a shutdown
of a router or breaking of a link, the dynamic routing protocols
update all the tables in the routers (and eventually in the host)
automatically..
 22-2 FORWARDING

Topics discussed in this section:

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table
Static Routing Table
Dynamic Routing Table
Format

22.23
 Figure 22.10 Common fields in a routing table

22.24
Routing(interdomain ,Intradomain)

Routing(interdomain ,Intradomain)
Types of Routing
Routing Algorithm:
Distances Vector Routing,
Link state Routing,
Path vector Routing
 22-3 UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

A routing table can be either static or dynamic. A

static table is one with manual entries.. A dynamic
table is one that is updated automatically when there
is a change somewhere in the Internet.. A routing
protocol is a combination of rules and procedures that
lets routers in the Internet inform each other of
changes..
Topics discussed in this section:
Optimization
Intra- and Interdomain Routing
Distance Vector Routing and RIP
Link State Routing and OSPF
Path Vector Routing and BGP
22.26
 Figure 22.12 Autonomous systems

22.27
 Figure 22.13 Popular routing protocols

22.28
 Figure 22.14 Distance vector routing tables

22.29
 Figure 22.15 Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

22.30
 Note

In distance vector routing, each node

shares its routing table with its
immediate neighbors periodically and
when there is a change.

22.31
 Figure 22.16 Updating in distance vector routing

22.32
 Figure 22.17 Two-node instability

22.33
 Figure 22.18 Three-node instability

22.43
 Figure 22.19 Example of a domain using
RIP

22.44
 22-3 UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

A routing table can be either static or dynamic. A

static table is one with manual entries.. A dynamic
table is one that is updated automatically when there
is a change somewhere in the Internet.. A routing
protocol is a combination of rules and procedures that
lets routers in the Internet inform each other of
changes..
Topics discussed in this section:
Optimization
Intra- and Interdomain Routing
Distance Vector Routing and RIP
Link State Routing and OSPF
Path Vector Routing and BGP
22.45
 Figure 22.20 Concept of link state routing

22.46
 Figure 22.21 Link state knowledge

22.47
 Figure 22.22 Dijkstra algorithm

22.48
 Figure 22.23 Example of formation of shortest path
tree

22.49
 Table 22.2 Routing table for node
A

22.50
 Figure 22.24 Areas in an autonomous system

22.51
 Figure 22.25 Types of links

22.52
 Figure 22.26 Point-to-point link

22.53
 Figure 22.27 Transient link

22.54
 Figure 22.28 Stub link

22.55
 Figure 22.29 Example of an AS and its graphical representation in
OSPF

22.56
OSPF
 Figure 22.30 Initial routing tables in path vector routing

22.65
 Figure 22.31 Stabilized tables for three autonomous
systems

22.66
 Figure 22.32 Internal and external BGP
sessions

22.67
 22-4 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

In this section, we discuss multicasting and multicast

routing protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast
Applications
Multicast
Routing Routing
Protocols
22.72
 Figure 22.33 Unicasting

22.73
 Note

In unicasting, the router forwards the

received packet through
only one of its interfaces.

22.74
 Figure 22.34 Multicasting

22.75
 Note

In multicasting, the router may

forward the received packet
through several of its interfaces.

22.76
 Figure 22.35 Multicasting versus multiple unicasting

22.77
 Note

Emulation of multicasting through

multiple unicasting is not
efficient and may create long
delays, particularly with a large
group.

22.78
 Note

In unicast routing, each router in the

domain has a table that defines
a shortest path tree to possible
destinations.

22.79
 Figure 22.36 Shortest path tree in unicast routing

22.80
 Note

In multicast routing, each involved

router needs to construct
a shortest path tree for each group.

22.81
 Figure 22.37 Source-based tree approach

22.82
 Note

In the source-based tree approach, each

router needs to have one shortest path
tree for each group.

22.83
 Figure 22.38 Group-shared tree approach

22.84
 Note

In the group-shared tree approach, only

the core router, which has a shortest
path tree for each group, is involved in
multicasting.

22.85
 Figure 22.39 Taxonomy of common multicast protocols

22.86
 Note

Multicast link state routing uses the

source-based tree approach.

22.87
 Note

Flooding broadcasts packets, but

creates loops in the systems.

22.88
 Note

RPF eliminates the loop in the

flooding process.

22.89
 Figure 22.40 Reverse path forwarding (RPF)

22.90
 Figure 22.41 Problem with RPF

22.91
 Figure 22.42 RPF Versus RPB

22.92
 Note

RPB creates a shortest path broadcast

tree from the source to each destination.
It guarantees that each destination
receives one and only one copy
of the packet.

22.93
 Figure 22.43 RPF, RPB, and RPM

22.94
 Note

RPM adds pruning and grafting to RPB

to create a multicast shortest
path tree that supports dynamic
membership changes.

22.95
 Figure 22.44 Group-shared tree with rendezvous router

22.96
 Figure 22.45 Sending a multicast packet to the rendezvous router

22.97
 Note

In CBT, the source sends the multicast

packet (encapsulated in a unicast
packet) to the core router. The core
router decapsulates the packet and
forwards it to all interested interfaces.

22.98
 Note

PIM-DM is used in a dense multicast

environment, such as a LAN.

22.99
 Note

PIM-DM uses RPF and pruning and

grafting strategies to handle
multicasting.
However, it is independent of the
underlying unicast protocol.

22.
100
 Note

PIM-SM is used in a sparse multicast

environment such as a WAN.

22.
101
 Note

PIM-SM is similar to CBT but uses a

simpler procedure.

22.
102
 Figure 22.46 Logical tunneling

22.
103
 Figure 22.47 MBONE

22.
104