Chapter 2

Communicating over the

Network
Data Communications

1
Objectives:
Understand the concept of data communication and
the platform for communication
Describe Analog and Digital Data Transmission
Describe Transmission Impairments
Describe the structure of a network, including the
devices and media that are necessary for successful
communications.
Identify Networking Software Requirements

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 What Is Telecommunication?
 Telecommunications is the electronic transmission of signals
for communications between a sender and a receiver.

3
 Data Communication
 Data communications is a specialized subset of telecommunications that
refers to electronic collecting, processing, and distributing of data
between computer system devices.
 It is the exchange of data between two or more parties or the
transmission of data from one point to another.
 The exchange may be in the form of words, letters, messages, drawings,
etc.
 When the data travels a short distance, the communication is referred to
as local communications.
 When the data travels a long distance, the communication is referred to
as telecommunications.
 Examples of telecommunication services include: Telephone, cellular
radio, fax, teleconferencing, video conferencing, etc

4
 Communicating the Message
In data communication system data is transmitted from one
point to another by means of electrical signal.
Communication system components:
 Source (sender): generates data to be transmitted
 Transmitter (encoder): Converts data /message into
transmittable signals
 Transmission System (channel): Carries data
 Receiver (decoder): Converts received signal into data /
message
 Destination: Takes incoming data

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Simplified Communications Model Diagram

6
 Cont’d…
Assume conversation over a telephone line
Source: Data generator (person who talks)
Transmitter: transform + encode information
(telephone apparatus)
Transmission system: system connecting
source and destination (the telephone line)
Receiver: transform back to understandable form
by the destination (telephone apparatus)
Destination: Data receiver (person who listens)

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Data Transmission

8
 Concepts and Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and
receiver over some transmission medium.
Signal: electromagnetic waves
Can propagate along the transmission medium
Transmission Medium
Direct link
Refer to the transmission path between the transmitter
and receiver in which signals propagate directly with no
intermediate devices, other than amplifiers or repeaters
used to increase signal strength.
Note that it can apply to both guided and unguided
media

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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
 A transmission medium is point-to-point if:
–Direct link Point-to-point

–Only 2 devices share the medium

 A transmission medium is multipoint if:
–More than two devices share the same medium

Multipoint

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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
 Data rate: the speed at which data is transferred within the
computer or between a peripheral device and the computer,
measured in bits per second(bps). The data rate is sometimes
called the bit rate.
 Signal rate: is the number of signal elements sent in Is. The
unit is the baud, the signal rate is sometimes called the pulse
rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
 One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate
while decreasing the signal rate.
 Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission;
decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth
requirement.

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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
 Bandwidth :
Analog bandwidth (frequency bandwidth or radio
bandwidth): a measure of the width of a range of
transmission frequencies, measured in hertz(Hz), KHz, MHz.
Example: 5KHz for AM radio, 200KHZ for FM radio, 3KHZ for
telephone
Digital Bandwidth: the rate of data transfer, bit rate or
throughput, measured in bits per second (bit/s), KBps, MBps,
GBps.
 Bandwidth is important because it indicates how much data
can be transmitted over a specific channel. A wider bandwidth
allows more data to be transmitted at a given time.
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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
Communication Line Analog Bandwidth:
 Communication line bandwidth is the difference between the
minimum and maximum range of frequencies allowed by the
communication line.
Bandwidth = higher frequency - lower frequency.
 For example: A wire transmits in a frequency range from 100
Hz to 2,500 Hz. Its bandwidth is 2,400 Hz.

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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
Effective Bandwidth:
 Effective bandwidth is one property of transmission system.
 If the effective bandwidth of the input signal is larger than the
bandwidth of transmission system, the output signal will be distorted
a lot!
 The signal’s bandwidth should match the bandwidth supported by
the transmission system.
Input signal Output signal
Transmission
System

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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
Electromagnetic Waves:
 The motion of electrically charged particles produces
electromagnetic waves.
 These waves are also called "electromagnetic radiation"
because they radiate from the electrically charged particles.
 Radio waves, microwaves and visible light are examples of
electromagnetic waves that differ from each other in wave
length.
 Electromagnetic waves need no material medium for
transmission.

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 Concepts &Terminology (Cont’d…)
Electromagnetic Signal Frequency:
 Frequency refers to the number of times a current
(electromagnetic wave) passes through a complete cycle.
 Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), which represents one
cycle per second.
 Frequencies are represented from 0 Hertz to 300 GHz (called
the electromagnetic spectrum).
K=Kilo=1,000, M=Mega=1,000,000,
G=Giga=1,000,000,000

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 Data Transmission Modes
 There are three types of transmission
/communication modes that are used to transfer
data between two devices:
1.Simplex Mode
2.Half duplex Mode
3.Full duplex Mode

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 Simplex Transmission
Signals are transmitted in only one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a
message back to the sender.
With simplex transmission, problems encountered
during the transmission are not detected and
corrected. Senders cannot even be sure that the
data is received.
–e.g. Television, Radio,
keyboard and monitor

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 Half Duplex
Signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one
way at a time.
It is possible to perform error detection and request the
sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted.
•e.g. walkie-talkie, Browsing the World Wide Web

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 Full Duplex
Both stations may transmit data simultaneously.
e.g. telephone, Communication channels between
two computers
In full duplex system there can be two lines one for
sending the data and the other for receiving data.

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 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
 In a communication system, data are propagated from one point to
another by means of electromagnetic signals.
 Analog signal
–Propagated over a variety of media: wire, fiber optic, space
–Continuously varying according to the source information
–Continuous
 Digital signal
–A sequence of voltage pulses
–Discrete
Note : in the real world analog data is represented by analog signal
and digital data is represented by digital signal.
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Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

Analog
Data

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 Analog Transmission
 Analog transmission is a means of transmitting
analog signals without regard to their content.
–The signals may represent analog or digital data.
–In either case, the analog signal will become
weaker after a certain distance.
–Therefore, the analog transmission system includes
amplifiers to boost the energy in the signal.

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 Digital Transmission
 Digital transmission is concerned with the content of the
signal. It can use digital signal, or analog signal.
 Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
–A repeater receives the signal, recovers the pattern of 1s
and 0s, regenerates the signal, and retransmits the signal.
–Amplifiers cannot do this, as the signal has no meaning
of 0 or 1
 Attenuation is overcome.
 Digital signals can transfer data faster and more accurately
than analog signals.
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 Transmission Impairments
 With any communications system, the signal that is received
may differ from the signal that is transmitted, due to various
transmission impairments.
 Consequences:
–For analog signals: degradation of signal quality
–For digital signals: bit errors
 The most significant impairments include
–Attenuation and attenuation distortion
–Delay distortion
–Noise
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 Attenuation
 Attenuation: signal strength falls off with distance.
 Depends on medium
– For guided media, the attenuation is generally
exponential and thus is typically expressed as a
constant number of decibels per unit distance.
– For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex
function of distance and the makeup of the
atmosphere.

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Attenuation…

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 Attenuation Distortion
Attenuation is often an increasing function of
frequency.
This leads to attenuation distortion:
•some frequency components are attenuated
more than other frequency components.
Attenuation distortion is particularly noticeable for
analog signals: the attenuation varies as a function of
frequency, therefore the received signal is distorted,
reducing intelligibility.

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 Delay Distortion
 Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
 Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propagation
of a signal through a guided medium varies with frequency.
 Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the
receiver at different times, resulting in phase shifts between
the different frequencies.
 Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data
–Some of the signal components of one bit position will
spill over into other bit positions, causing intersymbol
interference, which is a major limitation to maximum bit
rate over a transmission channel.
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Delay Distortion…

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 Noise
 Unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between
data transmission and reception are referred to as noise.
 Noise is the major limiting factor in communications
system performance.
 Four categories of noise:
–Thermal noise
–Intermodulation noise
–Crosstalk
–Impulse noise

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 Noise (Cont’d…)
Thermal noise (or white noise):
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates
an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
It is present in all electronic devices and transmission media, and is a
function of temperature.
Cannot be eliminated, and therefore places an upper bound on
communications system performance.

Intermodulation noise:
When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission
medium, the result may be Intermodulation noise.
Signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original
frequencies or multiples of those frequencies will be produced.
E.g., the mixing of signals at f1 and f2 might produce energy at
frequency f1 + f2. This derived signal could interfere with an intended
signal at the frequency f1 + f2.

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 Noise (Cont’d…)
Crosstalk:
–It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by
electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs.
–Typically, crosstalk is of the same order of magnitude as, or less
than, thermal noise.
Impulse noise:
–Impulse noise is a spike(a signal with high energy in a very short
time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.
–It is generated from a variety of cause, e.g., external
electromagnetic disturbances such as lightning.

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Types of Data Transmission

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 Parallel transmission
 In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted
simultaneously on separate communication lines.
 In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used.
 All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse
from one device to another i.e. multiple bits are sent with
each clock pulse.
 Parallel transmission is used for short distance
communication.
Example: Computer to Printer, Communication within the
Computer

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 Parallel transmission…
 As shown in the figure below, eight separate wires are used
to transmit 8 bit data from sender to receiver.

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 Parallel transmission…
Advantage of parallel transmission:
 It is speedy way of transmitting data as
multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously
with a single clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission:
   It is costly method of data transmission as it
requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same
time.

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 Serial Transmission
 In serial transmission, the various bits of data are
transmitted serially one after the other.
 It requires only one communication line rather than
n lines to transmit data from sender to receiver.
 In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with
each clock pulse.
 Serial transmission is used for long distance
communication.

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 Serial Transmission…
 As shown in figure below, suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is
to be sent from source to destination. Then least significant
bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits.
The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the
end via single communication line.

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 Serial Transmission…
Advantage of Serial transmission:
 Use of single communication line reduces the
transmission line cost as compared to parallel
transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission:
 This method is slower as compared to parallel
transmission as bits are transmitted serially
one after the other.

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 Types of Serial Transmission
  There are two types of serial transmission:
1. Synchronous
2. Asynchronous
 Both these transmissions use 'Bit synchronization' .
 Bit synchronization is a function that is required to determine
when the beginning and end of the data transmission occurs.
 Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know
when data begin and end during a transmission.
 Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.
 

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 Asynchronous Transmission
 Asynchronous transmission sends only one
character at a time where a character is either a
letter of the alphabet or number or control character
i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
 Bit synchronization between two devices is made
possible using start bit and stop bit.
 Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the
receiver to the arrival of new group of bits. A start bit
usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.

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 Asynchronous Transmission…
 Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the
receiver know that byte is finished, one or
more additional bits are appended to the end
of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called
stop bits.
 Addition of start and stop increase the number
of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is
consumed in asynchronous transmission.

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 Asynchronous Transmission…
There is idle time between the transmissions of different
data bytes. This idle time is also known as Gap.
The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This
mechanism is called Asynchronous, because at byte level
sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within
each byte, receiver must be synchronized with the incoming
bit stream.

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Application of Asynchronous Transmission
1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for
keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices.
The advantage of this method is that it does not
require any local storage at the terminal or the
computer as transmission takes place character by
character.
2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to
Internet traffic in which information is transmitted in
short bursts. This type of transmission is used by
modems.

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 Cont’d…
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission:
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as
compared to synchronous
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in
itself, therefore if character is corrupted during transmission,
its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having
different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be
transmitted becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to
implement.

47
 Cont’d…
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission:
1. This method is less efficient and slower than
synchronous transmission due to the overhead of
extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the
recognition of the start bits. These bits can be
missed or corrupted.

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 Synchronous Transmission
 Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
 In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that
may contain multiple bytes.
 There is no gap between the various bytes in the data
stream.

49
 Synchronous Transmission…
 In the absence of start & stop bits, bit
synchronization is established between sender &
receiver by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.
 Since the various bytes are placed on the link
without any gap, it is the responsibility of receiver to
separate the bit stream into bytes so as to
reconstruct the original information.
 In order to receive the data error free, the receiver
and sender operates at the same clock frequency.

50
 Cont’d…
Application of Synchronous transmission:
 Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between
computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission:
 This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra
bits (start bit & stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual
data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission:
1.It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer
storage at the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires
accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in the
cost.
2.The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This
requires proper synchronization which makes the system complicated.

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Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

52
Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous

53
 Components of the Network
• Hardware (includes devices and media)
• Software (services and processes)

54
 Network Hardware
When we refer to network hardware we are
talking about a range of electronic devices
that can be interconnected in such a way as
to allow the transmission of signals between a
number of workstations.
These devices range from simple generic
hubs to sophisticated proprietary hardware
such as routers and gateways.

55
 Network Hardware...
The most commonly used network hardware
components are:
End devices
intermediary devices
Media devices

56
 End Devices & Their Roles
An end device is a source or destination device
that form the interface between users (human
network) and the underlying communication
network in a networked system.
Examples: computers, printers, VoIP Phones,
cameras, cell phones, etc.
Originate data flow!
Commonly referred to as hosts (source or
destination of a message)
Each host has an address that will identify it on the
network

57
 Cont’d…
Role of end devices:
Client (can request & display info from the
server)
Server (provide information and services
to other hosts)
Both client and server

58
 Servers
Robust central computers at the heart of a network.
The server contains the file, print, application, security, and
other services in a central computer that is continuously
available to respond to client requests.
There are different types of servers based on the need of the
organization:
• File Server
• Printer Server
• Database Server
• Web Server
• Mail Servers
• Fax servers 59
 File Servers
In computing, a file server (or fileserver) is a computer
attached
•Cpower to a network
– not that has in
very important thea primary purpose of
file server
providing a location for shared disk access, i.e. shared
•Backup
storage – most servers
of computer have
files (such asinbuilt high-capacity
documents, tape
sound files,
backup drivesmovies,
photographs, to protect against
images, data loss.etc.)
databases, Tapethat
drives
can usually
be
use QIC by
accessed (Quarter Inch Cartridge)
the workstations DAT
that are (Digitaltoaudio
attached tapes)
the same
computer network. PU Processing tapes.
Servers are the muscle men in
the computer world

60
 File Servers...
File servers run the Network operating system (NOS) which
handles:
authenticating users during login
controlling users’ access to resources based on their rights
managing print queues
doing backups
running centralised software such as virus scanners
running services like DHCP to give out IP addresses to
workstations
 controlling internet services

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 R.A.I.D.
Exercise:
try to explore what RAID is and the
common types of RAID?

3-disk RAID array

62
 Proxy Servers
 A proxy server is a program on a special server computer that
is used to access websites on behalf of other computers;
hence it acts as a proxy for the actual Internet.
 When a computer wants a website, it is retrieved by the proxy
server and then sent to the requesting computer after it has
passed the firewall program.
 A proxy device (running either on dedicated hardware or as
software on a general-purpose machine) may act as a firewall
by responding to input packets (connection requests, for
example) in the manner of an application, whilst blocking
other packets.

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Proxy Servers...

64
 Proxy Servers...
 Proxies make tampering with an internal system from the
external network more difficult, and misuse of one internal
system would not necessarily cause a security breach
exploitable from outside the firewall (as long as the
application proxy remains intact and properly configured).
 Conversely, intruders may hijack a publicly-reachable system
and use it as a proxy for their own purposes; the proxy then
masquerades as that system to other internal machines.
 While use of internal address spaces enhances security,
crackers may still employ methods such as IP spoofing to
attempt to pass packets to a target network.

65
 Intermediary Devices & Their Role
Intermediary devices interconnect end
devices.
Intermediary devices connect the individual
hosts to the network and can connect
multiple individual networks to form an
internetwork.
Examples: Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges,
Switches, Access points, Routers, Firewalls,
etc.

66
 Cont’d…
Role of an intermediary device:
• Provides connectivity and manages data flows across
network
• Works behind the scenes
• Determines the path data will travel to get from source to
destination
• Knows all the paths that exist
• Informs other like devices about errors or communication
failures
• Retimes & retransmits signals as necessary

67
 Repeaters
Signal attenuation or signal loss – signal degrades over
distance in a bus topology.
Repeaters clean, amplify, and resend signals that are
weakened by long cable length.

68
 Repeaters…
 A repeater can extend the physical length of a LAN.
 A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it connects two segments
of the same LAN.
 The segments connected are still part of one single LAN.
 Note that the whole network is still considered one LAN, but the portions
of the network separated by repeaters are called segments.

69
 Repeaters…
A repeater does not amplify the signal; it
regenerates the signal.
When it receives a weakened or corrupted signal, it
creates a copy, bit for bit, at the original strength.
The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A
repeater must be placed so that a signal reaches it
before any noise changes the meaning of any of its
bits.
A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering
capability.

70
 Hubs
A hub acts as the central component in a star topology, and
typically contains 4, 8, 16 or even more different ports for
connecting two or more computers or other hubs.
Hubs regenerate and retransmit network signals
Hubs propagate signals through the network
They cannot filter network traffic
They cannot determine best path
They are used as network concentration points
Uplink port – crossover mode or straight through mode

71
 Hubs…
It is similar in operation to a repeater, except that it
broadcasts data received by any of the ports to all other ports
on the hub.
 Hubs can be active, passive or hybrid.
Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit
signals in the same way as a repeater does. Because hubs
usually have 4 to 16 ports for network computers to connect
to, they are sometimes called multiport repeaters.
 Active hubs require electrical power to run.

72
 Hubs…
Some types of hubs are passive. They act as connection
points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the signal
passes through the hub.
 Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.

73
 Multistation Access Unit
 A Multistation Access Unit (MAU) is a special type of hub
used for token ring networks.
 The word "hub" is used most often in relation to Ethernet
networks, and MAU only refers to token ring networks.
 On the outside, the MAU looks like a hub. It connects to
multiple network devices, each with a separate cable.
 Unlike a hub that uses a logical bus topology over a physical
star, the MAU uses a logical ring topology over a physical
star.
 When the MAU detects a problem with a connection, the ring
will beacon.

74
 Multistation Access Unit…
 Because it uses a physical star topology, the MAU can easily
detect which port the problem exists on and close the port, or
"wrap" it.
 The MAU does actively regenerate signals as it transmits data
around the ring.

75
 Bridges
 Designed to create two or more LAN segments, each of which
is a separate collision domain.
 A bridge connects dissimilar networks (different cabling and
topologies) together.
 Bridges, like switches, can learn the MAC(media access
control) address of each of the hosts connected to them and
use that address to control traffic to each of the host’s ports.
 Bridges, however, are slower than switches, so they have
been largely replaced by switches as a device that is used to
segment traffic.

76
 Bridges…
 Bridges maintain a MAC address table for both segments
they are connected to.
 Frame filtering
 If the frame is addressed to a MAC address on the local side
of the bridge, it is not forwarded to the other segment.
 For example in Figure15.5,two LANs are connected by a
bridge. If a frame destined for station 712B13456142 arrives
at port1, the bridge consults its table to find the departing
port. According to its table, frames for 7l2B13456142 leave
through port1; therefore, there is no need for forwarding, and
the frame is dropped.

77
 Bridges…
 On the other hand, If a frame for 712B13456141 arrives at
port2,the departing port is port1 and the frame is forwarded.

78
 Switch
 A switch is similar to a bridge, except that it has multiple ports.
 A switch learns the physical address (MAC address) of all of the
devices that are connected to it and then uses it to control traffic
flow.
 A switch can also be seen as a more intelligent hub – whereas a
hub passes on all data to every port, a switch will only pass data on
to the port that it is intended for.
 Modern switches build a port map of all IP address which respond
on each port, and only broadcasts on all ports when it doesn't have
a packet's target IP address already in its port map.
 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports.
 Often used in a star or tree topology

79
 Routers
 Routers are special computers that connect LAN, MAN, and
WAN. They are backbone of the Internet.
 Connect two networks that use common network layer
protocol.
 Store the network addresses of computers in different
networks in a table called the routing table.
 Routers determine where to forward traffic by consulting a
routing table.
 Filter and forward packets among different networks.

80
 Routers…
 Determine the most efficient path for a packet to take.
 Send the packet to the right address and make sure that it
does not go to where it is not needed.

81
 Routers…
 Routers first determine whether the traffic belongs on their
network; then they deliver the traffic that belongs on their
network to the appropriate network hosts and forward the
traffic that does not belong on their network to another router.
 Can not forward unroutable protocols.
 Provide more security.
 Support more complex routing protocols such as RIP and
OSPF.
 Some routers may also connect two networks that use
different layer 2 protocols. These routers incorporate the
functionality of a bridge and are called brouters.

82
 Brouters
 Have the best features of both routers and bridges.
 Can be configured to pass the unroutable protocols
by imitating a bridge.
 Can be configured not to passing broadcast storms
by acting as a router for other protocols.
 Understand frames and packets.

83
 Gateways
 A gateway is a device used to connect networks using
different protocols.
 In order to communicate with a host on another network, an IP
host must be configured with a route to the destination
network.
 If a configuration route is not found, the host uses the gateway
(default IP router) to transmit the traffic to the destination host.
 The default t gateway is where the IP sends packets that are
destined for remote networks.
 If no default gateway is specified, communication is limited to
the local network.
 A gateway normally operates in all five layers of the Internet or
seven layers of OSI model.
84
 Network Interface Cards
 Network interface cards, usually referred to as NICs,
act as the physical interface or connection between
the computer and the network cable.
 Every workstation and server will contain at least
one NIC.
 NICs contain the electronic components that
establish and control network communications.
 The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each
computer and server on the network.

85
 NIC…
The role of the NIC is to:-
Prepare data from the computer for the network
cable.
Send the data to another computer.
Control the flow of data between the computer
and the cabling system.
Receive incoming data from the cable and
translate it into bytes that can be understood by
the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

86
 NIC…
After the NIC has been installed, the network
cable is attached to the card's port to make the
actual physical connection between the
computer and the rest of the network.
NICs are usually specific to a particular type
of cabling – for example, a NIC may have either
an RJ45 connector or a BNC connector.
The most common network interface
connections are
Ethernet cards and
wireless adapters.
87
 Ethernet Cards
 Ethernet cards are usually included with a
computer, although additional Ethernet cards
can be purchased and installed on most
computers.
 Ethernet cards can contain connections for
either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both).
 If it is designed for coaxial cable, the
connection will be BNC.
 If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a
RJ-45 connection.
88
 Ethernet Cards …
 Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector.
 This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an
Ethernet card.
 When this method is used there is always an external transceiver attached
to the workstation.
 Only the RJ-45 connector is found on most modern Ethernet cards.

Figure: Ethernet card

From top to bottom:
RJ-45,
AUI,
 BNC connectors

89
 Attachment Unit Interface (AUI)
An Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) is a 15 pin connection
that provides a path between a node's Ethernet interface and
the Medium Attachment Unit (MAU), sometimes known as a
transceiver.

90
 Transceivers (media converters)
 Transceiver short for transmitter-receiver, a device
that both transmits and receives analog or digital
signals.
 The term is used most frequently to describe the
component in local-area networks (LANs) that
actually applies signals onto the network wire and
detects signals passing through the wire.
 For many LANs, the transceiver is built into the
network interface card (NIC).
 Some types of networks, however, require an
external transceiver.
91
Transceivers (media converters)…

92
 Transceivers (media converters)…
 In Ethernet networks, a transceiver is also called a Medium
Access Unit (MAU).
 Media converters interconnect different cable types twisted
pair, fiber, and Thin or thick coax, within an existing network.
 They are often used to connect newer 100-Mbps, Gigabit
Ethernet, or ATM equipment to existing networks, which are
generally 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, or a mixture of both.
 They can also be used in pairs to insert a fiber segment into
copper networks to increase cabling distances and enhance
immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI).

93
 Wireless Adapters
 Wireless adapters are found in most portable
devices, such as laptops, smart phones, and
tablet devices.
 External wireless adapters can be purchased
and installed on most computers having an
open USB (Universal Serial Bus) port, or
unused expansion slot.

94
 WAPs (Wireless Access Point)
 A wireless network adapter card with a transceiver sometimes
called an access point, broadcasts and receives signals to
and from the surrounding computers and passes back and
forth between the wireless computers and the cabled network.
 Access points act as wireless hubs to link multiple wireless
NICs into a single subnet.
 Access points also have at least one fixed Ethernet port to
allow the wireless network to be bridged to a traditional wired
Ethernet network.

95
 Modem
 Modems (MODulator DEModulator) convert data between the
analogue form used on telephone lines and the digital form
used on computers.
 Modulation: digital information to analog signals
 Demodulation: analog signals back into useful digital
information.

96
 Modem (Cont’d…)
 Modems constantly transmit a carrier signal. The
carrier signal's function is, basically, to "carry"
information from one place to another.
 Modems transmit information by varying, or
modulating, this carrier signal.
 The carrier signal is characterized by the number of
signal intervals, or pulses, that are transmitted per
second.
 Each pulse is called a baud.

97
 Exercise
 There are 3 types of modulation:
1.Amplitude modulation(AM)
2.Frequency modulation(FM)
3.Phase modulation(PM)
Discuss about these modulation types?

98
Conversion of Digital Information to
Analog Information

99
 Modem Technologies
 Dial up modem (internal and external)
 DSL and ADSL
 Cable modems

100
 What is DSL?
 Digital Subscriber Line.
 A special hardware attached to both the user and switch
ends of line.
 New modem technology.
 Data transmission is based on digital encoding (digital).
 Uses phone line for the customer wiring (subscribers’ line).

101
 Advantages of DSL
Allows high-speed Internet access over existing twisted-pair and
ordinary copper telephone wires.
Secure connection.
No dial-up, waiting or dropped connections.
Provides "always-on" connection to transport high-bandwidth data.
Saves both money and time.
Provides large file transfers.
Multiple workers on a network can connect to a single DSL.

102
 What is ADSL?
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line.
 It is a form of DSL.
 A high-speed Internet access service.
 Speed depends on the length and the diameter of the
cable and the type of the mode.
 Requires a special ADSL modem and an Internet service
provider (ISP) .

103
 ADSL…
 It is asymmetric since the data coming to your computer from
the Internet (download) is faster than the data traveling from
your computer to the Internet (upload).
 Uses standard telephone lines.
 Telephone can be used normally, even when surfing in the
Web with ADSL service.
 An "always on" service.
 Not available to everyone.

104
 Cable Modems
 Cable modems don't connect to your phone line,
they connect to the same coaxial cable that you
connect your television to.
 Motorola recently developed a cable modem that
runs at 30 Mbps.
 Just for comparison's sake, a fast modem will go
28.8 kbps; the Ethernet connections to all dorm
rooms run at a maximum of 10 Mbps; and the
University's connections to the Internet, a pair of T1
lines, run at 1.544 Mbps each!

105
 Transmission Media
– this is the channel over which a message travels.
– Encoding is different for each type, i.e. electrical impulses,
light pulses, wave patterns.

106
 Transmission Media…
There are three basic forms of network media:
1.Copper cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
2.Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of light.
3.Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave
transmissions.
Messages are encoded and then placed on the media.
Encoding is the process of converting data into patterns of
electrical, light, or electromagnetic energy so that it can be
carried on the media.

107
 Design Factors
Each media type has its advantages and disadvantages.
When choosing the media, consider each of the following:
Cable length: Does the cable need to span across a
room or from building to building?
Cost: Does the budget allow for using a more expensive
media type?
Bandwidth: Does the technology used with the media
provide adequate bandwidth? All other factors remaining
constant, the greater the bandwidth of a signal, the higher
the data rate that can be achieved.
Ease of installation: Does the implementation team have
the ability to install the cable, or is a vendor required?

108
 Cont’d…
Susceptible to EMI/RFI / Interference : Is the local
environment going to interfere with the signal?
Transmission impairments: - such as attenuation, noise. 
Number of receivers: A guided media can be used to
construct a point to point link or a shared link with multiple
attachments.
In multiple attachment case, each attachment introduces
some attenuation and distortion and usually the bandwidth
available will be shared among the various attachments.

109
 Types of Transmission Media
 Two main categories:
1. Guided /bounded / ― wires / cables
2. Unguided /unbounded ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio,
microwave, infrared, satellite
Guided transmission media:
Transmission capacity of guided media is described with respect to:
 Data rate or bandwidth
 Distance the media can run
 Type of connection (point to point or multipoint)
 Commonly used guided media:
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber Optical
110
 Twisted-Pair Cables
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern. A wire pair acts as a single communication link.
 The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs
in a cable.
 Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths to
reduce the crosstalk interference.
 The twist length typically varies from 5 to 15 cm.
 The wires in a pair have thicknesses of from 0.4 to 0.9 mm.

111
 Twisted-Pair Cables…
It is the most commonly used medium in the telephone network
(linking residential telephones to the local telephone exchange, or
office phones to a PBX), and for communications within buildings
(for LANs running at 10-100Mbps).
Used for both analog and digital signals.
For analog signals, amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 km.
For digital transmission, repeaters are required every 2 or 3 km.
For point-to-point analog signaling, a bandwidth of up to 1 MHz is
possible.
For long-distance digital point-to-point signaling, data rates of up
to a few Mbps are possible; for very short distances, data rates of up
to 10 Gbps have been achieved in commercially available products.
Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, use
twisted-pair cables.
112
 Twisted-Pair Cables…
Compared to other commonly used guided transmission media
(coaxial cable, optical fiber), twisted pair is limited in distance,
bandwidth, and data rate but is much less expensive than others and
easier to work with.
The medium is quite susceptible to impairments such as
interference and noise because of its easy coupling with
electromagnetic fields.
The attenuation for twisted pair is a very strong function of
frequency.
Several measures are taken to reduce impairments.
Shielding the wire with metallic braid or reduces interference.
The twisting of the wire reduces low-frequency interference,
and the use of different twist lengths in adjacent pairs reduces
crosstalk.
Twisted pair comes in two varieties: unshielded and shielded.
113
 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is ordinary telephone
wire.
Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical
protection).
This is the least expensive of all the transmission media
commonly used for local area networks and is easy to
work with and easy to install.
However UTP is subject to external electromagnetic
interference, including interference from nearby twisted
pair and from noise generated in the environment.

114
 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)…
Speed and throughput—10 to 1000 Mbps
Average cost per node—Least expensive
Media and connector size—Small
Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

Metal
115
 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)…
UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-
45) connector.
The RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector used commonly to
connect computers onto a local-area network (LAN), especially
Ethernets.
These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors.
Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors look similar, there are
crucial differences between them.
The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit in to the
RJ-11 telephone jack.
The RJ-45 connecter houses eight cable connections, while
the RJ-11 houses only four.
116
Categories of UTP Cables
EIA /TIA classifies UTP cables according to the quality:
 Category 1 ― the lowest quality, only good for voice
(Telephone), mainly found in very old buildings
 Category 2 ― good for voice and low data rates (up to
4Mbps for low-speed token ring networks =>T1-lines)
 Category 3 ― at least 3 twists per foot, for up to 10 Mbps
(common in phone networks in residential buildings)
 Category 4 ― up to 16 Mbps (mainly for token rings)
 Category 5 (or 5e) ― up to 100 /1000Mbps (common for
networks targeted for high-speed data communications)
 Category 6 ― more twists than Cat 5, up to 10Gbps
117
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
 STP cables are similar to UTP cables, except there is a metal
foil or braided-metal-mesh cover that encases each pair of
insulated wires

118
 Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)…
 Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
 Average cost per node—Moderately
expensive
 Media and connector size—Medium to large
 Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

119
 Cont’d…
When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following
points in mind:
The speed of both types of cable is usually
satisfactory for local-area distances.
UTP is less expensive than STP.
Because most buildings are already wired with UTP,
many transmission standards are adapted to use it,
to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable
type.

120
 Coaxial Cables
 Coaxial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital
signals.
 In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry signals of higher
frequency (100KHz–500MHz) than UTP cables

121
 Coaxial Cables…
Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more
stations on a shared line than twisted pair.
Coaxial cable is a versatile transmission medium, used in a wide
variety of applications, including:
Television distribution - aerial to TV & CATV systems
Long-distance telephone transmission - traditionally used for
inter-exchange links, now being replaced by optical fiber
/microwave/ satellite
Short-run computer system links
Local area networks

122
 Coaxial Cables…
 Noise immunity is better than twisted pair
 Less susceptible to interference and cross talk but there still is
attenuation and thermal noise problem
 Can go up to 185m or 500m without the need for an
amplifier/repeater.
 There are two types of coaxial cable:
 Thin coaxial cable (thinnet)
 Thick coaxial cable (thicknet)
 The type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of
your particular network.

123
 Thinnet Cable
Thinnet coaxial cable is a flexible coaxial cable
about 0.64 centimeters thick.
Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and
easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type
of network installation.
Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a
distance of up to approximately 185 meters before
the signal starts to suffer attenuation.

124
 Thicknet Cable
 Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27
centimeters in diameter.
 Thicknet cable’s copper core is thicker than a thinnet cable copper
core.
 The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals.
This means that thicknet can carry signals farther than thinnet
cable.
 Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters
 Therefore, because of thicknet supports data transfer over longer
distances, it is sometimes used as a backbone to connect several
smaller thinnet-based networks.
 Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps
keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick
coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a liner bus
network.

125
 Coaxial-Cable Connector
Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector is used to
connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set.
The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch
out to a connection to a computer or other device.
The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to
prevent the reflection of the signal.

126
 Fiber-optic Cable
Optical fiber or fiber optics cables are created by binding
together hundreds to thousands of strands of smooth, very
thin (as human hair) glass or plastic fiber.
Fiber-optic cable contains glass fibers rather than copper
wire.
Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light
pulses rather than electrical pulses.
Electronic signals generated by the computer are converted
to optical signals in the form of photons which are transmitted
(flashed) down the cable by a laser or light-emitting diode.
 A photo-detector on the other end collects the optical signals
and they are converted back to electrical signals.

127
Fiber cable layout

128
 Cont’d…
 Unlike copper cable, the signals on fiber optic cable are not
subject to the problems of attenuation, or crosstalk.
 This greatly increases the potential transmission distance.
 In addition fiber optic cable is more secure than copper wire.
 Fiber optic cable is generally more expensive than copper cable
(i.e. twisted pair cable & coaxial cable).
 Maximum distance signal travels without a repeater is 500m -
100km.
 There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and
multimode.
 Multimode cable has a larger diameter; however, both cables
provide high bandwidth at high speeds.
 Single mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

129
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Noise resistance ― external light is blocked by outer jacket
 Less signal attenuation ― a signal can run for miles without
regeneration.
 Higher bandwidth ― currently, limits on data rates come
from the signal generation/reception technology, not the fiber
itself

 Cost ― Optical fibers are expensive

 Installation/maintenance ― any crack in the core will
degrade the signal, and all connections must be perfectly
aligned

130
131
Media standards for LAN cabling

132
 Wiring Standards
It is important to understand the order of the wires within the
RJ-45 connector.
To make UTP/STP cabling you need some pieces of
equipment:
some UTP/STP cable;
some RJ-45 connectors;
 an RJ-45 crimper.
Cable cutter
Tester

The RJ-45 crimper is a tool used for fixing the connector to

the cable.

133
134
 Pin Wiring Color Order Standard
We have two standards of wiring color order:
T-568A
T-568B
The TIA/EIA 568-A standard which was ratified in
1995, was replaced by the TIA/EIA 568-B standard in
2002 and has been updated since.
Both standards define the T-568A and T-568B pin-
outs for using Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and RJ-
45 connectors for Ethernet connectivity.

135
T-568A Pin Color Order T-568B Pin Color Order

136
 Pin Ordering for Two Ends
1. Straight through
2. Crossover
3. Rollover

137
 Straight-Through Cable
You usually use straight cable to connect different type of
devices (dissimilar devices).
This type of cable will be used most of the time and can be
used to connect:
– Switch to PC /server
–Switch to router
–Hub to PC /server
–PC to modem's LAN port
To make a straight-through cable it does not matter which
order you arrange the colour-codes wires in, so long as the
order is the same at both ends of the cable.

138
Straight-Through Pin Color Order (T-568B)

139
 Crossover Cable
Crossover cable is used to connect similar devices.
 A crossover cable can be used to connect:
• Hub to hub
• Switch to switch
• Pc to pc
• Router to router
• Hub to switch
• Pc to router
For a crossover cable, you can also arrange the wires in any order
at one end of the cable.
At the other end arrange them so that pins 1 and 3 are swapped
over, and pins 2 and 6 are swapped over.
Purpose of this cross cable is RX (receiving terminal) connects to
TX (transmitting) of one pc to another pc and vice versa.

140
Crossover Pin Color Order (T-568B)

141
 Rollover Cable
 Rollover cable (also known as Cisco console cable or a Yost
cable) is a type of null-modem cable that is often used to
connect a computer terminal to a router's console port or
switch.
 This one piece cable is used for connecting your computer's
serial port to the RJ45 console port on most Cisco equipment.
 This rollover console cable has an RJ45 connector on one end
and a DB9 serial connector on the other end.
 Used for configuration purpose.
 This cable is typically flat (and has a light blue color) to help
distinguish it from other types of network cabling.

142
Rollover Cable Pin Color Order

143
 Wireless Transmission Media
Although the majority of LANs connect devices using
a physical cable, there are instances where it is
difficult or impossible to install cable. In such cases
wireless transmission can be used to connect network
devices.
Wireless systems do not physically connect network
devices since the links between the devices are
invisible(there is no physical connection between the
sender and receiver).
Antennas are used for transmission and reception of
signal.
144
 Wireless Transmission Media…
There are two types of wireless transmission configuration
based on the focus of the reception:
–Directional and
–Omni-directional

Directional transmission
– Transmitter sends out a focused EM beam
– Transmitter and receiver antennae must be carefully aligned
– More suitable for higher frequency signals
Omnidirectional transmission
– Transmitted signal spreads out in all directions
– May be received by many antennae
145
 Wireless Transmission Frequencies
 2GHz to 40GHz
–microwave
–highly directional
–point to point
–satellite
 30MHz to 1GHz
–omnidirectional
–broadcast radio

146
 Antennas
 Electrical conductor used to radiate or collect electromagnetic
energy.
 Transmission antenna:
–radio frequency energy from transmitter
–converted to electromagnetic energy by antenna
–radiated into surrounding environment
 Reception antenna:
–electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna
–converted to radio frequency electrical energy
–fed to receiver
 The same antenna is often used for both purposes
147
 Cont’d…
The most common types of wireless
transmission media are:
Microwave
Satellite
Radio frequency
Infrared links

148
 Microwave
Microwave transmission uses very-high
frequency signals (3,000 MHz to 30 GHz) to
transmit signals between stations.
Microwaves are unidirectional.
The two types of microwave transmission
are terrestrial and satellite.

149
 Terrestrial Microwave
Terrestrial microwave transmissions are sent between two
microwave stations on the earth (earth station).
The primary use for terrestrial microwave systems is in long
haul telecommunications (telephone) service, as an
alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber.
The microwave facility requires far fewer amplifiers or
repeaters than coaxial cable over the same distance,
(typically every 10-100 km) but requires line-of-sight
transmission i.e. microwaves are unidirectional. This means
that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

150
Terrestrial Microwave…

151
 Terrestrial Microwave…
Microwave is commonly used for both voice and television
transmission.
Another increasingly common use of microwave is for short
point-to-point links between buildings, for closed-circuit TV or
as a data link between local area networks (data
transmission- wireless LANs ).
The most common type of microwave antenna is the
parabolic "dish”, fixed rigidly to focus a narrow beam on a
receiving antenna. A typical size is about 3m in diameter.
Microwave antennas are usually located at substantial
heights above ground level to extend the range between
antennas and to be able to transmit over intervening
obstacles.

152
 Terrestrial Microwave…
To achieve long-distance transmission, a series of microwave
relay towers is used, and point-to-point microwave links are
strung together over the desired distance.
Microwave transmission covers in the range 1 to 40 GHz
frequency.
The higher the frequency used, the higher the potential
bandwidth and therefore the higher the potential data rate.
As with any transmission system, a main source of loss is
attenuation, related to the square of distance.
Another source of impairment is interference and rainfall.

153
 Satellite Microwave
A satellite is an object that orbits another large
object like planet.
Communications satellites are artificial satellites
that receive signals from an earth station and then
retransmits the signal to other earth stations.
The satellite receives transmissions on one
frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the
signal, and transmits it on another frequency
(downlink). The optimum frequency range for satellite
transmission is in the range 1 to 10 GHz.

154
Satellite Microwave…

155
 Satellite Microwave…
A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of
frequency bands, called transponder channels, or simply
transponders.
Most satellites providing point-to-point service today use a
frequency bandwidth in the range 5.925 to 6.425 GHz for
transmission from earth to satellite (uplink) and a bandwidth
in the range 3.7 to 4.2 GHz for transmission from satellite to
earth (downlink).
This combination is referred to as the 4/6-GHz band, but has
become saturated. So the 12/14-GHz band has been
developed (uplink: 14 - 14.5 GHz; downlink: 11.7 - 12.2
GHz).

156
 Satellite Microwave…
For a communication satellite to function effectively,
it is generally required that it remain stationary with
respect to its position over the earth to be within the
line of sight of its earth stations at all times i.e. it
requires geo-stationary orbit (height of 35,784km
and spaced at least 3-4° apart).
To remain stationary, the satellite must have a
period of rotation equal to the earth's period of
rotation, which occurs at a height of 35,863 km at the
equator.

157
 Satellite Microwave…
Two satellites using the same frequency band, if close
enough together, will interfere with each other.
To avoid this, current standards require a 4° spacing in the
4/6-GHz band and a 3° spacing at 12/14 GHz. Thus the
number of possible satellites is quite limited.
Among the most important applications for satellites are:
Television distribution,
 Long-distance telephone transmission,
 Private business networks,
 Global positioning.

158
Satellite Point to Point Link

159
Satellite Broadcast Link

160
 Broadcast Radio
Radio frequency can travel long distances, and can
penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used for
communication, both indoors and outdoors.
Radio waves are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel
in all directions from the source, so the transmitter and
receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.
The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, the radio
waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to
interference by another antenna.
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such
as radio and television.

161
 Broadcast Radio…
 Broadcast radio involves sending signals through the
air between transmitters, at frequencies from 30 to
300MHz.
 Amplitude modulation (AM) radio uses a low
frequency and allows it to broadcast its signal far
(530-1605KHz).
 Frequency modulation (FM) radio uses a higher
frequency and the signal travels shorter distances
(87.6-108 MHz).
 Short wave radios transmit signals over long distances
and utilize specific restricted frequency ranges.

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 Broadcast Radio…
 Television stations use the ultra-high frequency
(UHF) channels and very-high frequency (VHF)
channels to transmit TV programs in the ranges
400-900MHz and 50-225MHz respectively.
 Broadcast radio suffers from multipath interference
–reflections from land, water, other objects

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Multipath Interference

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Wireless Propagation Ground Wave

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Wireless Propagation Sky Wave

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Wireless Propagation Line of Sight

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 Cellular Radio
 Cellular telephones actually are radio devices that use
cellular radio (form of broadcast radio with restrictions on how
far the signal is transmitted) to transmit voice and data.
 The broadcast area of a cellular radio system is divided into
cells. Here is how it works:
1. Using a cellular phone, the caller dials a number. The signal is sent
from the cell phone's antenna to the cellular antenna located in cell 1.
2. The signal is sent to the regional cellular phone switching office.
3. The signal is switched to the local Telephone Company switching
station.
4. The signal is now in the regular phone system and the call is
switched to the number dialed.

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 Infrared
Infrareds (IR) transmission involves sending light signals at a
frequency between visible light and radio waves.
Commonly used in TV remote controls, now is used to provide
LAN connections.
It is a line-of-sight transmission and used for short-range
communication with a maximum coverage of 30 to 80 feet.
Increasingly, computers and devices such as printers come
with IrDA ports, which enable the transfer of data without the
use of cables.
They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but
have a major drawback: they do not pass through solid
objects.

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Networking Software Requirements

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 Network Software
 A general phrase for software that is designed to help set up,
manage, and/or monitor computer networks.
 Networking software applications are available to manage and
monitor networks of all sizes, from the smallest home
networks to the largest enterprise networks.
 The major software components used in a net are NOS and
device drivers.
 Device drivers are programs that control the functionality of
the hardware device. For example, NIC driver controls the
functionality of NIC.

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 Network Operating System (NOS)
Server is a generic term applied to any machine running a
‘service’ application. Example: access to shared files (file
server) or access to shared printers (print server).
These tasks, and many more, are controlled by the Network
Operating System.
Some of the most popular NOSs are:
Novell Netware (better, more expensive at first, cheaper over
time)
Microsoft Windows Server (now dominant)--They offer
similar services.

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 Cont’d…
A NOS operates in the same way to the operating system of
a PC; however it has special capabilities that enable it to
connect computers and peripheral devices, such as printers,
to a LAN.
All networking software has a range of functions to perform
once the connection has been made:
1. Administration
2. File Management
3. Other Resource Management
4. Security

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 Cont’d…
1. Administration - the management of users is the main
task. Their authorisation details need to be added, deleted
and organised into groups. Backup procedures need to be
run.
2. File Management - the location and transfers of files being
used needs to be managed between users and storage
locations.
3. Other Resource Management - such as printer
management that involves the spooling of print tasks and
the allocation of these tasks to the appropriate printer.
4. Security - the access rights of users need to be set up and
monitored.

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 Popular Network Operating Systems
Unix - a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system that can
be used on a variety of computers ranging from a mainframe
to a personal computer.
Novell NetWare - the most popular of all NOS. provides
users with a regular interface that is self-sufficient of the
hardware being used at the time. It is a stand-alone system
which is situated on the server.
Linux - is a version of Unix that runs on a number of
hardware platforms. Because of its stability it is very popular
with Internet Service Providers (ISPs) as an operating system
for web servers.

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 Cont’d…
Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003, Windows Server
2008, 2012 - is the major upgrade of Windows NT; it allows
for plug-and-play, which enables the addition of peripheral
devices. It also uses ‘active directory’ which makes network
administration simpler and more stable.
Mac OSX Server -is a line of computer operating systems
developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc, the latest of
which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh
computers.

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