Chapter 5: semantics

Presented by

Sara Ali
Fareda Tlish
Hana Alghamoody
Amal Faruon
 01 The diversity of meaning

the contents
02 Lexical
meaning :homonym ,polysemy ,synonymy.

03 Lexical meaning :sense and denotation

04 semantics and grammar

05 Sentences meaning and utterance

meaning

06 Formal semantics
Semantics is generally defined
as the study of meaning ,
According to Jhon Lyons the
definition of ’’ meaning ‘’ in
semantic terms can not be
established . Instead an
answer to the question “”What
is the meaning of
meaning ?“”should be sought
after, Additionally , he put
emphasis on the complexity of
the topic and problematic of
the term itself just as Leech
and Palmer did sees the
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boarder of meaning much
further than conceptual
version of it .
Classification of the spectrum of
meaning on its form
Lexical meaning . Sentences meaning

Grammatical meaning

Grammatical meaning .
Utterance meaning
Variety of semiotic ,or communicative functions that language used for :

Descriptive function

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Communicating
Functional differences Structural differences
Such as .
Such as

You can simply impress your audience

and add a unique zing.

Correlation of speech acts

Commands
Imperative
Statements
Declarative
Questions Integrative
 Mainly includes propositional statements or
questions which in corporate a definite “truth
Descriptive
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value” either be true or false ‘EX : Jhon gets
up late .

The third
type of It is not propositional .so it can not be characterized as true
or false EX”: Good heaven :
distinction Non-descriptive
Your Picture Here EX: how are you ?

of
meaning
Expressivmenaning (emotive/ affective)
Phatic communion
coined by the
anthropologist Malinski Social meaning
 Lexical meaning
Every language contains a vocabulary or lexicon which is complementary
to the grammar in that the vocabulary not only lists the lexemes of the
language ,but associates with each lexeme all the information that are
required by the rules of the grammar . This grammatical information is
of two kinds ; A/ syntactic and B/ morphological .
For example : The English lexeme “go” would have associated with it in its
lexical entry a:/ The information that it belongs to one or more subclasses
intransitive verbs, and b:/ All the information that is needed ,including the
stem or stems , for the selection or contraction of its form ( go –going –
went- gone ) .
Lexemes

Word lexemes Phrases lexemes

Go put up with
Phrasal lexemes
Phrasal lexemes
Phrasal lexemes
Tend to be grammatically
or semantically idiomatic ,
or both, i, e, either their Might have a literal (non-
distribution throughout idiomatic) meaning ,or
STRENGTHS
the sentences of the figurative (idiomatic) meaning .
language or their meaning
is unpredictable from the
syntactic and semantic

S W

THREATS
properties of their
constituents .

WEAKNESS
Literal meaning Figurative meaning

. Refers to the actual Refers to less obvious or

meaning i, e, : the
dictionary or denotative
meaning.
deeper meaning
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F
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La ni
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Easy to accomplish
 Some concepts of semantics
Componential analysis Lexical field
Is ‘an approach to the study of Is ‘the organization of related words and
meaning which analysis a word expression into a system which shows
their relations to one another.’ ( Richard et
into a set of meaning al ,1987).
components or semantic feature.’ For example
(Richard et al , 1987) The lexical field of kinship terms
For example father ,brother , etc.
Lexical field of adjective : sad ,
Boy ……..(+human) (+male) (-adult ) happy ,angry … etc .
Man ……..(+human ) (+male)
(+adult)
Thus , man is different from boy basically
in one primitive semantics feature
Sense and references ( _+adult) .

Reference refers to an object or any thing that can

be can seen as book , table ,house

References is associated with

visualization
Sense is related to those words when do not refer to any
object of nature that can be visualized the words like love ,
intelligence . etc. , do not refer to any object . The meaning
of such word are expressed with the help of words
conveying the same meaning (synonyms )or opposite
meaning (antonyms) …… sense is associated with
realization

Denotation and Denotation and .

connotation connotation

Connotative meaning refers to

the special idea or concept
Denotation meaning directly
which is associated with a word
refers to that concept for which a
in terms of its meaning in
word literally stands in a
addition to its denotative
language
meaning .
For example “mother” literally
For examples : the word “mother
refers to an adult woman who
“in special context means
has children .
affection, devotion, loyality …etc.
 Lexical
Ambiguity
ambiguity
Ambiguity is a phenomenon Any ambiguity resulting
.
where an expression can from the ambiguity of a word
have two or more distinct is lexical ambiguity.
meaning There are two types of
lexical ambiguity :
structural ambiguity
Homonymy Polysemy
A sentence is considered as Give me a ring You have broken its leg
structurally ambiguous
when its structure permits
more than one interpretation
Examples
An American English
teacher

A teacher of An American who

American history teaches history
 Lexical relations
Words are not only the “containers “ or as fulfilling “roles "they can also have
a ‘relationship’ we describe the meaning of word in terms of their
relationships .
For example { if you are asked to give the meaning of the word “conceal "you
might reply it is the same as hide “or give the meaning of “shallow” as the
opposite of “deep’ so you are characterized the meaning of a word not in terms
of its component features , but in terms of its relationship to other words

The types of lexical relations

Near or broad synonyms
Synonyms Absolute synonyms
Synonyms is a relation in
Those words which have the
which various words have Those words which mean
same reference but differ in
different ( written and exactly the same thing and
their associative meaning .
sound ) forms but have the have the same
They have the same
same or nearly meaning communicative effect in all
communicative effects in
Ex : the context in which they
some context but not in all
Reply / Answer are used Ex :
Liberty / freedom Everybody / everyone contexts Ex :
Nobody /no one Little / small
Rarely / seldom Thin /skinny
 Antonym
. Antonym is a relation in which two words have Homonymy
different meaning ( written /sound) forms and are
opposite in meaning . Homonymy is a relation in which one form
Ex: pass :fail . Big small (written –and spoken )has to or more
Gradable antonym: refers to those entities which are unrelated meaning .Ex:
Bat bat

realized in more than one state . EX: big :bigger , long :longer

Non gradable antonym :refers to those

entities that can not exist in more than one form in a matter of
fact way. EX : the antonym ‘a live and a dead , can not be
graded like more a live or more dead .
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Non-gradable antonyms
Gradable antonyms
Bachelor –married
Hot-cold
Natural – artificial Text Here
Long –short
True-false
Happy –sad
 Polysemy
Polysemy is a relation in which one Hyponymy
form (written-spoken )having two Hyponymy is a relation in which the
related meanings Ex meaning of one form is included in
Leg Leg the meaning of another .

Animal

70%
Vegetable
Grammar and semantics: is the combination
between these elements (morphology and syntax )
What’s grammar ? A language consists of words What is semantics ?
and grammar .
Grammar itself has two parts :Morphology deals with the Semantics is perhaps the most difficult part
structure of words Ex : the fact that unfriendliness of the grammar of a language of a language
consists of four parts (called morphemes ) each of which to learn .the reason is basically , meaning in
has meaning and laughing –ing of two morphemes . a language are indefinite .
If a morpheme is added to a word and yields a word of Semantics (syntax) is the study of the way
different kind this is called a derivation Ex: the formation in which phrases and sentences are
of adjective beautiful from noun beauty , noun decision structured out of words , and so addresses
from verb widen from adjective wide ,and verb unite from questions like “What is the structure of
tie . Then we different sort of word .
sentences like what is the president
doing ?) and what's the nature of the
grammatical operation s by which
component words are combined together to
form the overall sentences structure?
 Language
characteristics

What's the difference between semantics and

grammar ?
Learning a primary language takes place for the majority
of people in early childhood , when we learn the basic
vocabulary and structure of our first language from those
who are around us. New words added to our personal
lexicon as we hear them and understand the meaning in
actual use .
Two characteristics of any language are grammar and
semantics , grammar which refers to the structure of
language , how words are used in speech , and how group
of words are put together in a patterns . Semantics refers
to literal meaning of the words we use of language , both
concepts are connected to the use of language , but
different aspects of language function .
 Morphology Syntax

The second component

If a morpheme
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of grammar
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some extra elements of
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the way in which
meaning to a word which is
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required by the grammar of together . In English an
the language , then it is 15% adjective –we can get
called an infection . The
20% 25%
the old lion , which is a
noun phrase (NP) ,
verb kill infects for past AVERB OR A VERB
tense , becoming killed , PHRASE (VP) as was
and the noun horse infects sleeping must in
for plural number becoming English be preceded by
horses . a noun phrase – we get
the old lion was
sleeping .
 A sentences may consist of
just one clause (it is then Meaning
02
called simple sentences )or
Sentence it can be a complex
sentences involving several
clauses Every morpheme has a
SIMPLE SENTENCES ex: I meaning . The ending –er
added to a verb may derived a
teach English / I am
noun which refers either to the
hungry . There may be a agent ( e,g baker ) or else to an
main clause and instrument intended to an
subordinating clause , activity ( e ,g mower ).
joined to it by a Some morphemes have
conjunction , which can different meaning with
indicates reason (the old different kind of words :un-
lion was sleeping because indicates an opposite
Quality with an adjective (e.
he was exhausted ) or
g ;kind –unkind )but a reverse
temporal sequence ( the action with verb (tie – untie ) .
lion was sleeping after
eating the hunter ) and so
on
Meaning of words
Meaning is also associated with the way in which words
are combined to make phrases , clauses and sentences .
Compare the dog bite the post man and the postman bit
the dog which involve the same word meaning but quite
different sentences meanings , because different
syntactic arrangement .
Referential meaning vs
sense meaning
Underlying both words and grammar there is
semantics , the organization of meaning . A word .can
have two sorts of meaning. First it may have reference
to the world :red describes the color of blood : chair
refers to a piece of furniture , with legs and a back on
each human being ma comfortably sit , secondly a
word has sense , which determines its semantics
relation to other words e.g : narrow is the opposite
( more especially : the antonym ) the wide , and
crimson refers to color that especial sort of red (we say
that crimson is a hyponym of red .
Sentences
meaning –
utterance Before we start let’s
meaning take a step back and
ask you what is
linguistics ?
Linguistics is the study of

form
meaning
Phonology Semantics
Morphology Pragmatics
Syntax
Sentences
Proposition
Sentences is a group of
words which are arranged Is a semantic unit of a
according to grammatical language , the idea
rules to produce a expressed in a sentences is

S
complete meaning . consider as unit , its
different from a sentences in
the sense that two
sentences may have the

utterance. W T same proposition .

The sentences I write books
And books are written by me

O
Have the same proposition
Is the spoken form of a as both of these contain the
language , what comes out as a same idea . .
speech that contains meaning
like sentences is an utterance .
It can be a word ,like yes ,no
wow that gives complete
meaning in a particular context .
According to generative grammar utterance are elliptical ,
incomplete and their meaning is the same as complete
sentences to be derived on particular occasions of utterance
Ex : next Friday
If I can manage it .

it also claimed that The utterance meaning is

the product of sentences meaning and
context and consider utterance as the study of
performance rather than the competence
Sentences meaning vs utterance meaning
Sentences Utterance
meaning meaning
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1 an uttering by
a person on
specific time ,
1- it can be location and 1 - I love my father
written or spoken event . ( it is a sentences
2 it must be 2- based on and utterance )
2 - Father love I my
grammatically saying
3 it should be (It is an utterance
correct but not a
3- it must apiece of the
language sentences )
express a
4 no need to be
complete thought
grammatical
5- it can be one
word .
.
 The Kinds of sentences and their characteristics use :

Declarative Interrogative Exclamatory Imperative

However there is an intrinsic connection Content Here

between characteristics use and the Get a modern
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type of sentences , but some declarative Presentation that is
sentences may be used indirectly for beautifully designed.
hope and I believe that
example this Template will your
The weather is cold Time
 Reference and denotation
Sense Denotation
It is the mental concept /image
and how we see objects in our It is a kind of meaning of words ,
mind .it related to those words it refers directly to that concept
which do not refer to any object for which a word can literally
of nature that can be visualized stands in a language . For
For example : love hatred , example the word “mother
intelligence . "literally refers to an adult
woman who has a child
Reference
.
Is an act language expression Dexies
which a speaker or written uses it is semantics notion which is derived from
language to enable a listener to the Greek word which means pointing or
identify something in the real indicating via language , any linguistics form
used to accomplish this pointing is called
world .
deictic expression for example when
Referent we notice a strange and ask what’s that
It is an actual thing the world .
EX: it is a cat
The word “cat” is a referent
Cat is reference
.
 Informal
semantics
 Natural language Metalanguage
Truth – conditional
In neuropsychology , Is a language that
semantics describes language it
linguistics ,and
It is an approach to philosophy of language , a refers to the words ,
semantics of natural natural language or phrases , or sentences
language that sees the ordinary language is any used to talk about a
meaning same as , or language that has involved particular language
naturally in humans EX:
reducible to , their truth
through use and repetition You can you are my
conditions . This sunshine , instead of
, without conscious
approach is primary planning or saying you are the reason
associated with Donald premeditation . Natural of my happiness
Davison . language can take Or the boy is sorrowful
different forms , such as instead of saying he is
speech , signing . sad .
Formal semantics
Distinguish the truth value of a proposition
from
. the truth – conditions of sentences , as
the earth is flat .

We.: have an example which originated by Polish

Logician Tarski : “ snow is white “ is true if and
only snow is white
Here Torski used a ststment made in English about English this is” object –language”
And the explanation provided by the theoretical vocabulary is “Metalanguage “
 Associate with generative grammar that the truth –
condition of any arbitrary sentences based on the meaning
of its constituent lexemes and grammatical structure

Declarative sentences have truth –conditions due to the Your Picture Here And Send To Back
characteristics use to make descriptive statement , while Non
descriptive sentences of various kinds (imperative –
interrogative )do not have the characteristics to make
statements such as
1 – my friend has just arrived
2 – has my friend just arrived ?

LOREM IPSUM DOLOR

SIT AMET,
CU USU AGAM
INTEGRE IMPEDIT.
Philosopher J.L. Austin suggested a
solution that treating non-declarative as
declarative in the same logical status as
explicit performance .
 REFERENCES
- Lyons ,J (2002) language and linguistics .Cambridge
University ypess.
- -Richard ,J,Platt,J.Weber.H(1987) longman Dictionary
of Applied linguistics .London :longman Group limited
- - Sharma , R,K .& ALAshab ,O.S (2013) An Introduction
to Linguistics . 2nd edition
- Trinh ,G. (2007) English semantics .