CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION HUMAN
BEHAVIOR
What is Behavior?
Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system,
usually in relation to its environment, which includes the
other organisms or systems around as well as the physical
environment. It is the response of the organism or system to
various stimuli

Pages 01
What is Human Behavior?
Human Behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms nction
with their environment, exhibited by humans in conjunctio
responding to various stimuli.

Human Behavior is by many factors, including:

a. attitudes j. values
b. emotion k. religion
c. culture l. rapport
d. ethics m. persuasion, and
e. authority n. Genetics
f. motivation
g. coercion Pages 2
h. beliefs
 What is Human Development?
Human development is the process of a person's growth and maturation
throughout their lifespan, concerned with the creation of an environment
where people are able to develop their full potential.

Four Pillars of Human Development

1. Equity - It is the idea that every person has the right to an education and health care, that there
must be fairness for all.

2. Sustainability - It encompasses the view that every person has the right to earn a living that
can sustain him or her, while everyone also has the right to access to goods more evenly
distributed among populations.

3. Production - It is the idea that people need more efficient social programs to be introduced by
their governments.

4. Empowerment-It is the view that people who are powerless, Pages 2

Theories of Child (Human) Development
Personality Theory
I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

The Structure of Personality (Tripartite Personality) The structure of personality, according to Sigmund Freud, is made up of
three major systems: the id, the ego and the superego.

1. Id-Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate
satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented of
the personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called the id the "true psychic reality" because it represents the inner
world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.

2. Ego - As the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego's job is to meet the needs of the id, whilst
taking into account the constraints of reality. The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the
id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the id and superego which seeks compromises to pacify
both. It can be viewed as our "sense of time and place".

3. Superego (Conscience of Man) - The superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the moral constraints placed on us
by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id (resulting in a high
level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-resulting in a low level of guilt. Superego internalizes
society and parental standards of "good" and "bad", "right" and "wrong" behavior (

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Freud's Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages) 1. Oral Stage (0-18 Months) This is the first psychosexual
stage in which the infant's source of id gratification is the mouth. Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later
when he has teeth, infant enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage may
develop an adult personality that is characterized by envy and suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be
optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others. 2. Anal Stage (18 Months-3 Years) When parents decide to toilet train
their children during anal stage, the children learn how much control they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles.
Children can have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish them. This
represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily wastes, and the super-ego which
represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the
formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt
to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents, and may develop an anal retentive character which is neat, stingy and obstinate. 3.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years) Genitals become the source of pleasure. The child's erotic pleasure focuses on masturbation, that is,
on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex; boys develop
unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection.

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anxiety) so decide to identify wi him rather than fight him. As a result, the boy develop masculine characteristics and represses his
sexual feeling towards his mother. This is known as: 4. Oedipus Complex - This refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm
and loving relationship wi mothers (mommy's boy). b. Electra Complex - This refers to an occasion where in girls experience an
intense emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy's girl). Note: The Oedipus Complex is named for the king of Thebes who
killed his father and married his mother 4. Latency Stage (6-11 Years) Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage, Sexual
energy is going through the process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles playing house
and sports. 5. Genital Stage (11 Years on) This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining
sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual and
romantic interests in others also become a central motive. Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the
child has in earlier stages, the more chances of developing a "normal" personality, and thus develops healthy meaningful
relationships with those of the opposite sex

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 Kinds of Trait by Allport
1. Common Traits
2. by most members of a particular culture. Individual Traits
4. Central Traits
5. Secondary Traits

Kinds of Trait by Goldberg (Big Five or Five Factor Theory)

1. Extraversion This dimension contrasts such traits as sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive, persuasive, decisive, and active with
more introverted traits such as withdrawn, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved.
2. Neuroticism People high on neuroticism are prone to
emotional instability. They tend to experience negative
emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous, and prone to worry.
3.Conscientiousness-This factor differentiates individuals who are dependable, organized, reliable, responsible, thorough,
hard-working, and preserving from those undependable, disorganized, impulsive, unreliable, irresponsible, careless, negligent and
lazy
4.Agreeableness - This factor is composed of a collection of
traits that range from compassion to antagonism towards others. A person high on agreeableness would be a pleasant person,
good-natured, warm, sympathetic, and cooperative
Part 8
5. Openness to Experience - This factor contrasts individuals who
are imaginative, curious, broad-minded, and cultured with those
who are concrete-minded
Personality Trait by Eysenck
1. Extrovert - It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.
2. Introvert - It refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.
3. Emotionally Unstable - It is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily disturbed.

Eysenck theorized that criminality and antisocial behavior are both positively and causally related to high levels of psychoticism,
extroversion and neuroticism.[12,13,141 The theory says that in extroverts, and possibly also in people high on the psychoticism
scale, biologically determined low degrees of arousal and arousability lead to impulsive, risk-taking and sensation-seeking behavior
that increase the level of cortical (brain) arousal to a more acceptable and enjoyable amount.!!2} Eysenck did find that extroverts
experience cortical under arousal, prefer higher levels of stimulation, and are less responsive to punishment - they therefore do not
learn behavioral alternatives with the use of disciplinary action.[15]

What is Temperament? Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of character, generally presumed to be biologically
determined and existent early in life, inclusive of traits like emotional reactiveness,

four Types of Temperament

1. Melancholic - sad, gloomy
2. Choleric – hot- tempered,
3. Phlegmatic -
4. Sanguine - pages 9 process
Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency
1. August Aichorn Aichom in his book entitled Wayward Youth (1925) and delinquency is the faulty said that the cause during the
first few years of his crime life. The child as a human being normally follows only his development of the child pleasure impulse
instinctive. Soon he (child) grew up and find some restriction to these pleasure impulses which he must control. Otherwise, he
suffers from faulty ego-development and become delinquent. He then concluded that many of the offenders with whom he had
worked had underdeveloped consciences. Aichorn identified two further categories of criminal: a. those with fully developed
consciences but identified with their criminal parents, and b. those who had been allowed to do whatever they like by over-
indulgent parents. 2. Cyril Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925) Burt gives the theory of General Emotionality. According to him many
offenses can be traced to either in excess or a deficiency of a particular instinct which accounts for the tendency of many criminals
to be weak willed or easily led. Fear and absconding may be due to the impulse of fear. Callous type of offenders may be due to
the deficiency in the primitive emotion of love and an excuse of the instinct of hate (19 3. William Healy (Individual Delinquency,
1916) He claimed that crime is an expression of the mental content of the individual. Frustration of the individual causes
emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain and pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is, crime
delinquency of the individual. Healy and Bonner (1936) conducted a study of 105 pairs of brothers where one was a persistent
offender and the other a non-offender. It was found that only 19 of the offenders and 30 of the non-offenders had experienced good
quality family conditions. These findings suggested that

circumstances within a household may be favorable for child but not the sibling. It then proposed that the latter ha not made an
emotional attachment to a "good parent", hence impeding the development of superego.[20) 4. Walter Bromberg (Crime and the
Mind, 1946) He noted that criminality is the result of emotional immaturity. A person is emotionally matured if he has learned to
control his emotion effectively and who lives at peace with himself and harmony with the standards of conduct which are
acceptable to the society. An emotionally immature person rebel against rule and regulations, engage in usual activities and
experience a feeling of guilt due to inferiority complex.
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Pages 12 process
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make
observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.(241
D. Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotzky) Vygotsky's Social Development Theory is the work of
Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky's work was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky's theory is one of the
foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal
development.
Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization
and social behavior.
Social Interaction
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget's understanding of child
development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: "Every function
in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)".
Applications of the Vygotsky's Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer 'transmits' information to students. In
contrast, Vygotsky's theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are
therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning
therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher (see figures 3 &

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Bio Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)
This is known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of
environmental systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory helps us understand why we may behave differently
when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work,
The Five Environmental Systems
The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying
degrees. These systems include the micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem.
1. The Micro System - The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers,
neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we
have direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when
socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such environment.
2. The Mesosystem - The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means that your family experience
may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive
attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of
classmates.
3. The Exosystem - The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not have any active role,
and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work
for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the
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after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes
more stable and agreeable,
F. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg) The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from
Jean Piaget's theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that
morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors.
Kohlberg ideas started from the research he performed with very young children as his subjects. He found out that children are
faced with different moral issues, and their judgments on whether they are to act positively or negatively over each dilemma are
heavily influenced by several factors. In each scenario that Kohlberg related to the children, he was not really asking whether or
not the person in the situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the reasons why these children think that
the character is morally right or not.
Levels of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
The first level of morality, preconventional morality, can be further divided into two stages: obedience and punishment, and
individualism and exchange.
Stage 1: Punishment - Obedience Orientation - Related to Skinner's Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of
punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the law
because we do not want to go to jail.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it
satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he needs that
money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg's theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because
of the serious need of the doer.
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Level 2: Conventional Morality The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development. Conventional
morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation - In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social
expectations before him. This is also known as the "interpersonal relationships" phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch
to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation - This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a
person's duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered
to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with the
universal principles that relation to the action done.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation - In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before
coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation - The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers
universally accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person
becomes attached to his own principles of justice (figures 6 & 7),127)
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Segment 2. Abnormal Behavior What is Abnormal Behavior?
Abnormal Behavior is something deviating from the normal or differing from the typical, is a subjectively defined behavioral
characteristic, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions. It may be abnormal when it is unusual, soe fally
www.ceptable, self. defeating, dangerous, or suggestive of faulty interpretation of reality or of personal distress
Abnormal Behavior is behavior that is devians, maladaptive,
or personally distressful over a long period of time The American Psychiatric Association defines abnormal behavior in medical
terms as a mental illness that affects or is manifested in a person's brain and can affect the way a person
thinks, behaves, and interacts with people
What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to understand their genetic, biological,
psychological, and social causes; effective classification schemes (nosology); course across all stages of development;
manifestations; and treatment. It is also defined as the origin of mental disorders, how they develop, and the symptoms they
might produce in a person 1291
The 4 Ds
A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality:
1. Deviance - This term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are considered deviant when they
are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed
deviant just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual's actions as
deviant or abnormal when his or her behavior is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to.
2. Distress - This term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or she may feel deeply
Pages20
troubled and affected by their illness.
3. Dysfunction This term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual's ability to perform normal daily
functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning. or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviors prevent the individual
from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behavior is not always caused by a disorder; it
may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike. 4. Danger - This term involves dangerous or violent behavior directed
at the individual, or others in the environment. An example of dangerous behavior that may suggest a
psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity,129
Models of Abnormality
1. Behavioral
Behaviorists believe that our actions are determined largely by the experiences we have in life, rather than by underlying
pathology of unconscious forces. Abnormality is therefore seen as the development of behavior patterns that are
considered maladaptive (i.e. harmful) for the individual. Behaviorism states that all behavior (including abnormal) is learned
from the environment (nurture) and that all behavior that has been learnt can also be 'unlearnt' (which is how abnormal
behavior is treated). The emphasis of the behavioral approach is on the environment and how abnormal behavior is
acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.
Classical conditioning has been said to account for the development of phobias. The feared object (e.g. spider or rat) is
associated with a fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear
response characterized by avoidance of the feared object and the emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered.
Learning environments can reinforce (re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviors. E.g. an individual may be rewarded
for being having panic attacks by receiving attention from family and friends - this would lead to the behavior being
reinforced and increasing in later life. Our society can also provide deviant maladaptive
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Part 22 process
3. Medical/Biological
The medical model of psychopathology believes that disorders have an organic or physical cause. The focus of this
approach is on genetics, neurotransmitters, neurophysiology. neuroanatomy, biochemistry etc. For example, in terms of
biochemistry-the dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of
schizophrenia. The approach argues that mental disorders are related to the physical structure and functioning of the
brain. For example, differences in brain structure (abnormalities in the frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles)
have been identified in people with schizophrenia.
4. Psychodynamic
The main assumptions include Freud's belief that abnormality came from the psychological causes rather than the
physical causes that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego and superego can all contribute to abnormality, for
example:
a. Weak Ego - Well-adjusted people have a strong ego that
is able to cope with the demands of both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times.
If, however, the ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the
personality.
b. Unchecked Id Impulses - If id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-destructive and immoral behavior.
This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic [dangerously abnormal] behavior in
adulthood.
c. Too Powerful Superego-A superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and inflexible in its moral values, will
restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to
Freud this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as phobias and
obsessions.
Freud also believed that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation were responsible for
disorders.Pages23
Identification of Abnormal Behavior Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the
following:
1. Deviation from Statistical Norm The word abnormal means "away from the norm Many population facts are measured such
as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally
stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely inteligent should be classified as abnormal. Examples are
a. Intelligence - It is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on an IQ test or to get a score below 35, but only
the lowest score is considered abnormal
b. Anxiety - A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone who almost never feel anxiety are
all considered to be abnormal.
2. Deviation from Social Norm
Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behavior, behavior that deviates from that standard considered to be
abnormal behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to another.
3. Maladaptive Behavior
This third criterion is how the behavior affects the well-being of the individual and/or social group. A man who attempts suicide
or a paranoid individual who tries to assassinate national leaders are illustrations under this criterion. The two aspects of
maladaptive behavior are:
a. Maladaptive to One's self- It refers to the inability of a person to reach goals or to adapt the demands of life.
b. Maladaptive to Society-It refers to a person's obstruction or disruption to social group functioning
4. Personal Distress
The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the individual's subjective feelings, personal distress rather than his
behavior. Most people commonly diagnosed Pages 24
as 'mentally ill' feel miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia.P 1321
5. Failure to Function Adequately
Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday
life. They may be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day-to-day living e.g. self-care, hold down a job,
interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc.
The following characteristics that define failure to
function adequately:
a. suffering,
b. maladaptiveness (danger to self), c. vividness and unconventionality (stands out),
d. unpredictably and loss of control, e. irrationality/incomprehensibility,
f. causes observer discomfort, and g. violates moral/social standards.[33]
6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what normal/ideal is and anything that
deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider
necessary to mental health. The six criteria by which mental health could be measured are as follows:
a. positive view of the self, b. capability for growth and development,
c. autonomy and independence, d. accurate perception of reality,
e. positive friendships and relationships, and
f. environmental mastery (able to meet the varying
demands of day-to-day situations).
According to this approach, the more of these criteria are satisfied, the healthier the individual is.[34]
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Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
as simple as worrying about a calculus test or grieving the death of a loved one. This distress is related to a real
related, or threatened event and passes with time. When such distressing feelings, however, persist for an
extended of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal
and could suggest a psychological disorder. period
1.
Impaired Functioning Here, a distinction must made between simply a passing period of inefficiency and prolonged
inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant person consistently fails in his classes or
someone who constantly changes his jobs for no f apparent reason.
be
3. Bizarre Behavior - Bizarre behavior that has no rational basis seems to indicate that the individual is confused.
The psychoses frequently result in hallucinations (baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are
patently false yet held as true by the individual).
4. Disruptive Behavior-Disruptive behavior means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the
lives of others or deprives them of their human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a
severe
psychological disorder. An example of this is the antisocial
personality disorder (35)
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Segment 3. Mental Disorder What is a Mental Disorder?
Mental Disorder refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning. A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric
disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant
distress or impairment of personal functioning, According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV, amental disorder is a
psychological syndrome or pattern which is associated with distress (e.g. via a painful symptom), disability (impairment in one or more important
areas of functioning), increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however it excludes normal responses such as grief from loss
of a loved one, and also excludes deviant behavior for political, religious, or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.
In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) redefined mental disorders in the DSM-5 as "a syndrome characterized by clinically significant
disturbance in an individual's cognition. emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or
developmental processes underlying mental functioning."
What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders?
It is better known as the DSM-IV; the manual is published by the American Psychiatric Association and covers all mental health disorders for both
children and adults. It also lists known causes of these disorders, statistics in terms of gender, age at onset, and prognosis as well as some research
concerning the optimal treatment approaches. Mental Health Professionals use this manual when working with patients in order to better
understand their illness and potential treatment and to help 3rd party payers (e.g., insurance) understand the needs of the patient. The book is
typically considered the "bible' for any professional who makes psychiatric diagnoses in the United States and many other countries. Much of the
diagnostic information on these pages is gathered from the DSM IV.139)
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What is American Psychiatric Association (APA)? APA is a medical specialty society with over 35,000 1
and international member physicians who work together ensure humane care and effective treatment for all persons will
mental disorder, including mental retardation and substance-relate disorders. It is the voice and conscience of modern
psychiatry. vision is a society that has available, accessible quality psychiatr diagnosis and treatment." APA is the oldest national
specialty society in the US. medic
Relationship between Mental Disorder and Crime The relationship between mental disorder and crime is issue of significant
empirical complexity. It has been subject
extensive research, using both cross-sectional and longitudin
designs and including samples of the general population
birth cohorts, psychiatric patients, and incarcerated offender
Nevertheless, findings have been equivocal. [41]
On the one hand, the following are several results of studi that have found a relationship between mental disorder and crime
1. The risk of criminal behavior was significantly high among subjects with mental disorders, regardless of th socioeconomic
status of the childhood family. In particula the higher risk for violent behavior was associated wi alcohol-induced psychoses and
with schizophrenia wit coexisting substance abuse.[42]
2. A review on the five epidemiological investigations of pos Second World War birth cohorts, came to the conclusion the
persons who develop major mental disorders are at increase risk across the lifespan of committing crimes. Howeve this
increased risk may be limited to generations of person with major mental disorders born in the late 1940s, 1950 and 1960s, as
they do not have received appropriate menta health care. 1437
3. After examining data from national hospital and crim registers in Sweden, researchers found that the overa population-
attributable risk fraction of patients was 5% indicating that patients with severe mental disorder comm one in 20 violent
crimes.144)
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4. A comparison on Swiss in-patients with the general population and came to the conclusion that patients were more
frequently registered in all crime categories, although there were differences between the diagnostic groups: while
alcoholics and drug users of both sexes had a significantly higher criminality rate, a higher rate was found among female,
but not male, patients suffering from schizophrenia or related disorders (45)
5. Finally, homicidal behavior appears to have a statistical association with schizophrenia and antisocial personality
disorder.146
On the other hand, there are also studies that discard any
relationship between mental disorder and crime. They are as follows: 1. In a study which examined the ability of
personal demographic, criminal history, and clinical variables to predict recidivism in mentally disordered offenders in
the United Kingdom, researchers found that reconviction in mentally disordered offenders can be predicted using the
same criminogenic variables that are predictive in offenders without mental disorders.[47]
2. Researchers analyzed the relationship between violence and substance abuse among patients with chronic mental
disorder and found that major mental disorder alone with no history of alcohol or drug abuse was associated with a
considerably lower risk of violence. Overall, the study showed no difference in the rate of violence between patients
with major mental disorders and patients with other diagnoses [48]
3. Other studies suggest that the diagnosis of schizophrenia and delusional disorder, contrary to previous empirical
findings, do not predict higher rates of violence among recently discharged psychiatric patients
4. Along the same lines, researchers found that the crime rate among male schizophrenic patients was almost the same
as that in the general male population. However, the crime rate among females was twice that of the general female
population, so the overall results of the study were mixed.[50] Pages 29
What is Mental Retardation (MR)? an has a low Intelligence Quotient (IQ), usually below 70 on a MR is a condition of limited
ability in which traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life; he/she first exhibited these
characteristics during the so-called individual
developmental period- by age 18, MR is a developmental disability that first appears in children (as measured by standard
intelligence tests) that is well below average and results in significant limitations in the person's living skills (adaptive
functioning). Adaptive skills are a term that refers to skills needed for daily life. Such skills include the ability to produce and
understand language (communication); home-living skills; use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care, and
social skills; self-direction; functional academic skills (reading. writing, and arithmetic); and job-related skills, (38)
Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation
1. Mild Mental Retardation Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ
score ranges from 50-70, and they can often acquire academic skills up to about the sixth-grade level. They can become fairly
self-sufficient and, in some cases, live independently, with community and social support.
2. Moderate Mental Retardation About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately
retarded persons have IQ scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision.
They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in
such supervised environments as group homes.
3. Severe Mental Retardation - About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded persons
have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded
individuals are able to live in a group home.
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4. Profound Mental Retardation - Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly
retarded individuals have 1Q scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with
appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. Profoundly retarded
people need a high level of structure and supervision,
Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental
retardation. Aggression, self-injury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the
symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause. Children who are mentally retarded reach developmental
milestones significantly later than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often
apparent from infancy. If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy
may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master. In about 40% of cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found.
Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include:
1. Genetic Factors
About 30% of cases of mental retardation is caused by hereditary factors. Mental retardation may be caused by an inherited
genetic abnormality, such as fragile X syndrome.
What is Fragile X Syndrome?
It is a defect in the chromosome that determines sex, is the most common inherited cause of mental retardation. Single-gene
defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other inborn errors of metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are not
discovered and treated early. An accident or mutation in genetic development may also cause retardation. Examples of such
accidents are development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy 18) and Down syndrome. Down syndrome, also called mongolism
or trisomy 21, is caused by an abnormality in the development of chromosome 21. It is the most common genetic cause of mental
retardation.
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2. Prenatal Illnesses and Issues
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (AS) affects one in 3,000 children in Western countries. It is caused by the mother's heavy drinking during the first twelve
weeks (trimester) of pregnancy. Some studies have shown that even moderate alcohol use during pregnancy may cause learning disabilities in childr
Drug abuse and cigarette smoking during pregnancy have also been linked to mental retardation.
Maternal infections and such illnesses as glandular disorders, rubella, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection may cause mental
retardation. When the mother has high blood pressure (hypertension) or poisoning (toxemia), the flow of oxygen to the fetus may be reduced, causi
brain damage and mental retardation.
Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central nervous system frequently cause mental retardation. Neural tube defect
for example, is a birth defect in which the neural tube that forms the spinal cord does not close completely. This defect may cause children to develo
an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid inside the skull (hydrocephalus). Hydrocephalus can cause learning impairment by putting pressure on the br
3. Childhood Illnesses and Injuries
Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox, measles, and Hib disease (a bacterial infection) may cause mental retardation if they are not treated
adequately. An infection of the membrane covering the brain (meningitis) of an inflammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) can cause swelling tha
turn may cause brain damage and menta retardation. Traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to the head or by violent shaking of the upper body m
also caus brain damage and mental retardation in children.
4. Environmental Factors
Ignored or neglected infants who are not provide with the and physical stimulation required for norm development may suffer irreversible learning
impairmen Children who live in poverty and suffer from malnutritio unhealthy living conditions, abuse, and improper inadequate medical care are at
higher risk. Exposure to lea
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