Chapter 4

Elements of Realizability Theory

4.1. Causality and Stability

4.2. Hurwitz Polynomials

4.3. Positive Real Functions

4.4. Testing Positive Real Functions

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 In4. Elements
the last chapter we were concerned with the
of realizability theory

problem of identifying the response given the

excitation and network.
When we discuss about synthesis we are concerned
with the problem of constructing a network given the
excitation and response.
The starting point for any synthesis is the system
R( s )
function H ( s ) 
E ( s)

 Our task is to synthesize the network from a given system

function

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 4.1 Causality and Stability
 The first step in synthesis procedure is to determine whether H(s) can be realized
as a physical passive network.
 There are two important considerations :causality and stability

I. Causality

 A voltage can’t appear between any pair of two terminals in the network before
a current is imposed or vice-versa.
 In other words, the impulse response of the network must be zero for t< 0, that
is:

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 Example: the impulse response is causal, where as is not
causal.
In certain cases the impulse response could be made realizable(causal) by delaying it
appropriately as shown below.

In frequency domain
 

4
  

So that the integral

Is not finite

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 II. Stability
 

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Example: check the following for stability

The zeros of T(s) are: s = -2,s =

7 -4 and poles are: s= 0,s = -1,s=-3
 4.2. Hurwitz polynomials
 

 
P( s )  ( s  1) s  1  j 2 s  1  j 2 
G ( s )  ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)
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 Properties of Hurwitz polynomials :

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Where q1, q2,… qn must be positive if the polynomial P(s)=M(s)+N(s) is Hurwitz.
5. If the continued fraction expansion of the odd to even or even to odd parts of a polynomial
yields positive quotient terms, then the polynomial must be Hurwitz to within a multiplicative
factor W(s). That is, if we write

P(s)=W(s)P1(s)

then P(s) is Hurwitz polynomial , if P1(s)and W(s) are Hurwitz

6. In case the polynomial is either only even or only odd, it is not possible to obtain the
continued fraction expansion in such cases, the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz if the ratio of P(s)
and its derivative P′(s) gives a continued fraction expansion.

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 Example . Check if the following polynomial is hurwitz or not

F ( s )  s 4  s 3  5s 2  3s  4
Since the order of n(s) is higher than m(s), we start with
n(s)/m(s). 4
n( s )  s  5s 2  4 and m( s)  s 3  3s

Obtain the continued fraction expansion of

n( s ) s 4  5s 2  4

m( s ) s 3  3s
2s 2  4
 s
s 3  3s
1
 s
s 3  3s
2s 2  4
1
 s
1 s
s
2 2s 2  4
1
 s
1 1
s
2 2s 2  4
s
1
 s
1 1
s
2 4
2s 
s
1
 s
1 1 Note that all the
s
2 1 coefficients of the
2s 
s quotients are positive
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 Test if the following polynomials are hurwitz or not
P(s) = s4 + 4s3 + 8s2 +16s +32
F(s) = s5 +12s4+45s3 +60s2+44s+48
F ( s)  s 4  s 3  4s 2  2s  3

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Routh Hurwitz Stability Criteria
• It determines if all the roots of a polynomial
• lie in the open LHP (left half-plane),
• or equivalently, have negative real parts.
• It also determines the number of roots of a polynomial in the open RHP
(right half-plane).
• It does NOT explicitly compute the roots.

Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion is based on ordering the

coefficients of the characteristic equation into an array, also known
as Routh Array.
Suppose the characteristic equation of a control system is given as:

Now, from the given equation, we will form Routh Array as

shown below:

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 To obtain the precise number of roots with nonnegative real part, proceed as follows.
Arrange the coefficients of the polynomial, and values subsequently calculated from
them as shown below:
• a0, a1, …., an coefficients are taken from
the equation and arranged as shown.

• Similarly, c coefficients and d coefficients

are calculated as following:

• (Coefficients b1, b2, b3, ……, bn

are calculated as

• In this process, the missing terms are

considered zero and elements of any
row can be divided by a positive
• This process is continued till we number to simplify the calculation.
16 get zero in the row with b
coefficients.
 • Count the number of sign changes in the first column of the array.
• It can be shown that a necessary and sufficient condition for all roots to be
located in the left-half plane is that all the ai are positive and all of the
coefficients in the first column be positive.

Now, the Routh stability Criteria is given as:

• “For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that each term of
first column of Routh Array formed of its characteristic equation be
positive if a0>0.
• If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and number of sign
changes of the terms of the first column of the Routh Array corresponds
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to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in the right half of
the s-plane”.
Example1: consider the fourth-order
polynomial:

In this example, the sign

changes twice in the first
column so the polynomial
equation has two roots in
RHP. So it is not stable

In this example, the sign

changes twice in the first
column so the polynomial
equation has two roots in
RHP. So it is unstable

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 Example 3: The characteristic equation of a system is given below. Determine the
stability of the system.

s4 + 4s3 + 16s2 +10s +5

In the Routh array formed, if we see in first column;

all the elements are positive. There is no sign change.
Hence the system in question is stable.

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 Example 4: The characteristic equation of a system is given below. Determine the
stability of the system

4s4 + 8s3 + 2s2 +10s +3

Applying Routh Hurwitz Criteria and forming Routh array. We

get,

In the first column of the Routh Array formed

above, there is one negative element. Also,
there are two sign changes in first column.
First is from 8 to -3 and second is from -3 to
18. Hence the system is questions is unstable
and out of 4 poles, 2 are in the right half of s-
plane.

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 Now, apart from determining the stability, Routh Criteria can also be used for
tuning the variable parameters to keep the system in the stable region. This
can be understood from the following example.

Find the range of values of k for which the system would be

stable.
Solution:
In the given system, k is an unknown parameter. Now, forming Routh array
from the
given equation

Now, in the array formed; if the system is to be stable

then all the elements in first column need to be
positive
21 – k > 0 & k > 0
k < 21 & k > 0
21 ⇒ 0 < k < 21 for the system to be stable.
 Special Cases of Routh Hurwitz Stability Criteria
• However, in this criteria there are some special conditions in which some
assumptions are needed to be made. These special cases are mentioned as follows:
Case I: When the first term in any row of the Routh array is zero while rest of the
row has at least one non-zero term.
• Because of this zero term, the terms in the next row become infinite and Routh’s
test breaks down. To overcome this difficulty, substitute a small positive number ε
for zero and proceed to evaluate the rest of Routh Array. Then check the signs of
the first column of the array by substituting ε→0.
Example : The characteristic equation of a system is
given as

Determine whether the system is stable or not.

Solution: Applying Routh Hurwitz Criteria and forming Routh Array,

we get
Now, if we examine the elements of first column.
Since there is a sign change at
s1 row, hence the system is
unstable and having two poles
in right half of s-plane due to
22 two sign changes.
 Example: The characteristic equation of a system is given
as

Determine whether the system is stable or not.

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 Case II: When all the elements in any one row of the Routh Array are zero.
• In this case there are symmetrically located roots in the s-plane. There can be pair of
real roots with opposite signs and /or pair of conjugate roots on the imaginary axis
and/or complex conjugate roots forming quadrature in the s-plane.
• The polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of the row just above the row of
zeros in the Routh array is called an auxiliary polynomial.
• This polynomial gives the number and location of root pairs of the characteristic
equation which are symmetrically located in the s plane. The order of the auxiliary
polynomial is always even
Example : The characteristic equation of a system is given as follows. Comment
on the
stability of the system.

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In above array, there is no change of sign. Hence the system will be
marginally or limitedly stable.
Also, if we solve and find the roots of auxiliary polynomial

These two pair of roots are also among

25 the roots of given characteristic
equation.
 Example : The characteristic equation of a system is given as follows. Comment on
the
stability of the system.

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4.3. Positive real functions

 

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 Consider the following when F(s) is rational

 

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 Properties of positive real functions
 

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 

4.4. Testing positive real functions

 

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The residues of complex conjugate poles are themselves conjugates. If the residues are real-
as they must be in order for F(s) to be PR- then K1-K1* so that

 

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 Example
s2
1. Is F ( s)  s 2  3s  2 positive real function?
s2 1
F (s)  
s  1( s  2) s  1
• Its pole s=-1 lies on the left of s plane
 No multiple poles on the jw axis
 Its real part is
 1   1  jw  1
ReF ( jw)   Re   Re 2   2
 1  jw   1 w  1 w

is always positive.
 s 1
2. Is F ( s )  positive
2 real?
s 2
Solution: F (s) 
s2
 
s j 2 s j 2 
 No poles on the right hand side.
 No multiple poles on jw axis.
 The real part of F(jw) is
 jw  1  1
ReF ( jw)   Re 2   2
 w 2 2w
this can be a negative number. For example for w=2.
Exercise
3. Is positive real?

 The poles of F(s) are located on the imaginary axis at s = + j and s =-j. Les us
calculate the residues at these poles.

 As the residues at the

pole are negative,
the function is not P.R.F.
Exercise
4. Check whether the following function is positive real
function or not ?
s4 F ( s) 
12 s 2  5
H (s)  2 2s 3  s
s  2s  5
s 3  5s
p( s)  4
s  2s 2  1
 End of Chapter 4

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