Digital Carrier Line Encoding

Digital Line Encoding

 involves converting standard logic levels (TTL, CMOS, etc.) to
a form more suitable to telephone line transmission.

 6 Primary Factors must be considered when selecting a line-

encoding format:
1. Transmission voltages and DC component
2. Duty cycle
3. Bandwidth considerations
4. Clock and framing bit recovery
5. Error Detection
6. Ease of detection and decoding

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Transmission Voltages and DC Components
 categorized as unipolar (UP) or bipolar (BP)

 Unipolar transmission – involves the transmission of only a

single nonzero voltage level, e.g., either a positive or a
negative voltage for logic 1 and 0 V for logic 0.

 Bipolar transmission – two nonzero voltages are involved,

e.g., positive voltage for logic 1 and an equal magnitude of
negative voltage for logic 0

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Duty Cycle
 used to categorize the type of transmission

 Non-return to zero (NRZ) - if the binary pulse is maintained

for the entire bit time

 Return to zero (RZ) – if the active time of the binary pulse is

less than 100% of the bit time

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Bandwidth Requirements
 To determine the minimum bandwidth required to propagate
a line-encoded digital signal, you must determine the highest
fundamental frequency associated with the signal.

 The highest fundamental frequency is determined from the

worst-case (fastest transmission) binary bit sequence.

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Bandwidth Requirements
 With UPNRZ, the worst-case condition is an alternating 1/0
sequence; the period of the highest fundamental frequency takes
the time of two bits and, therefore, is equal to ½ the bit rate (f b/2).
 With BPNRZ, the same with UPNRZ.
 With UPRZ, the worst-case condition when 2 successive logic 1
occur. The minimum BW is equal to bit rate (fb).
 With BPRZ, the worst case condition is when 2 successive logic
1’s or 0’s, & the minimum BW is equal to the bit rate (f b).
 With BPRZ-AMI, the worst-case condition is when 2 or more
successive logic 1’s, and the minimum BW is equal to ½ the bit
rate (fb/2).

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Clock and Framing Bit Recovery
 To recover & maintain clock & framing bit synchronization
from the received signal data, there must be sufficient
transitions in the data waveform.
 With UPNRZ & BPNRZ encoding, a long string of 1s or 0s
generates a data signal void of transitions & therefore, is
inadequate for clock recovery.
 With UPRZ & BPRZ-AMI encoding, a long string of 0s also
generates a data signal void of transitions.
 With BPRZ, transition occurs in each bit position regardless
of whether 1 or 0. Thus, BPRZ is the best encoding scheme
for clock recovery.

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Error Detection
 With UPNRZ, BPNRZ, UPRZ, & BPRZ encoding, there is no
way to determine if the received data have errors.
 With BPRZ-AMI encoding, an error in any bit will cause a
bipolar violation (BPV, or the reception of two or more
consecutive logic 1s with the same polarity). BPRZ-AMI has a
built-in error-detection mechanism. T carriers use BPRZ-
AMI with +3 V & -3 V representing logic 1 & 0 V for logic 0.

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Line Encoding Formats

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Line Encoding Summary

Encoding Minimum Average DC Clock Error

Format BW Recovery Detection
UPNRZ fb/2 +V/2 POOR NO

BPNRZ fb/2 0V POOR NO

UPRZ fb +V/4 GOOD NO

BPRZ fb 0V BEST NO

BPRZ-AMI fb/2 0V GOOD YES

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Digital Biphase

 Manchester code or diphase

 is a popular type of line encoding that produces a strong timing
component for clock recovery & does not cause DC wandering.
 Biphase is a form of BPRZ encoding that uses one cycle of a square
wave at 0o phase to represent a logic 1 & one cycle of a square
wave at 180o phase to represent a logic 0.

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 Digital Biphase

• Note that a transition occurs in the center of every signaling element

regardless of its logic condition or phase. Thus, biphase produces a strong
timing component for clock recovery.
• In addition, assuming an equal probability of 1s & 0s, the average DC
voltage is 0 V, & there is no DC wandering.
A disadvantage of biphase is that it contains no means of error detection.

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Several Variations of Biphase Encoding
 biphase M – used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion
Picture & Television Engineers) time-code data for recording
on videotapes because it has no DC component, & the code is
self-synchronizing (self-clocking, an important feature
because it allows clock recovery from the data stream even
when the speed varies with tape speed, such as when
searching through a tape in either fast or slow mode).
 biphase L – commonly called the Manchester code &
specified as IEEE 802.3 for Ethernet local area networks
 biphase S – similar to biphase M but opposite in
characteristics

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Miller Codes & Dicodes
 Miller codes are form of delay-modulated codes where a
logic 1 condition produces a transition in the middle of the
clock pulse, & a logic 0 produces no transition at the end of
the clock intervals unless followed by another logic 0.

 Dicodes are multilevel binary codes that use more than 2

voltage levels to represent the data. BPRZ & BPRZ-AMI are 2
dicode encoding formats. Dicode NRZ & dicode RZ are 2 or
more dicode formats.

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Biphase, Miller, & Dicode Encoding Formats

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Summary of Biphase, Miller, & Dicode Encoding
Formats
 biphase M (biphase-mark)
1 (hi) – transition in the middle of the clock interval
0 (low) – no transition in the middle of the clock interval
Note: there is always a transition at the beginning of the clock
interval
 biphase L (biphase-level/Manchester)
1 (hi) – transition from high to low in the middle of the clock
interval
0 (low) – no transition from low to high in the middle of the clock
interval
Note: there is always a transition at the beginning of the clock
interval

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Summary of Biphase, Miller, & Dicode Encoding
Formats
 biphase S (biphase-space)
1 (hi) – no transition in the middle of the clock interval
0 (low) – transition in the middle of the clock interval
Note: there is always a transition at the beginning of the clock
interval
 Differential Manchester
1 (hi) – transition in the middle of the clock interval
0 (low) –transition in the middle of the clock interval
 Miller/delay modulation
1 (hi) – transition in the middle of the clock interval
0 (low) – no transition at the end of the clock interval unless
followed by a zero

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Summary of Biphase, Miller, & Dicode Encoding
Formats
 Dicode NRZ
one-to-zero & zero-to-one data transitions change the signal
polarity. If the data remains constant, then zero voltage level
output.
 Dicode RZ
one-to-zero & zero-to-one data transitions change the signal
polarity in half-step voltage increments. If the data do not change,
then a zero-voltage level output.

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