Gregor Mendel:

1823-­‐1884

Mendelian Genetics
The study of Heredity

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 Genetics
I. Genetics is the Study of heredity (the transmission of
traits from generation to generation).

Genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel.

Mendel developed basic principals of heredity with
NO knowledge of genes or chromosomes.

Mendel worked with pea plants.

Why peas ?

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Pea plants :
• are inexpensive
• reproduction is easy to control
• Produce many offspring
• Pea plants have
contrasting characteristics

Contrasting characteristics
include:
• Seeds – round or wrinkled
• Seed Color – yellow or
green
• Height – TALL or short
• Flowers – white or
purple 3
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Mendel Developed Principles
of
1. Dominance: one form of a hereditary trait
dominates or prevents the expression of the
recessive trait.
2. Segregation: Splitting of
chromosomes during meiosis
3. Recombination: Combining
chromosomes from both the sperm and egg
(fertilization)
4. Independent Assortment:
Independent segregation of genes during
the formation of gametes.
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Pea Plant
Characteristics
 Mendel determined that since peas
reproduce sexually, there must be two
“characters” (called alleles) that in=luence
each trait. (one from the egg and one
from the sperm).
 Alleles are represented by letters.

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Working with Pea Plants
– The Next Generation

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 Mendel’s Work
Mendel began by cross-­‐pollinating pure plants with
contrasting traits.

Ex. pure tall X pure

short TT tt

Mendel then observed the offspring or 1st Rilial generation

(F1), and noticed only one trait (they were all tall) 8
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 TT x tt

T T
t
t
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 Mendel’s Work

Mendel then used two of these F1 tall plants and

crossed them. (incest)

Ex. F1 tall x F1
tall (Tt)
(Tt)

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 Tt x Tt

T t
T
t
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From this F1 cross he observed both traits in the
offspring (2nd Rilial generation – F2), but in an
unequal proportion

(75% tall and 25% short) or

(3 tall : 1 short)

Mendel determined that one form of the trait is

dominant over the other recessive trait (Tall is
dominant over short)

Parents pure tall X pure short F1

all tall

F2 3 tall : 1 short 14
Law of Dominance – one form of a hereditary trait
dominates or prevents the expression of the recessive
trait.
Dominant allele = capital letter
Recessive allele = lower case letter

Ex. tall =
T
short = t
• Parents have 2 alleles (2n)
Diploid
• Gametes have 1 allele (1n) Monoploid
• (half due to meiosis)

Review of dominance :
TT = tall
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 Genetic Terms
1. Dominance-­‐ The dominant gene in an allelic
pair is expressed (seen). It masks the recessive
allele (unseen). Represented by a CAPITAL letter

2. Recessive-­‐ the trait that is masked by

the dominant characteristic. Represented
by a lowercase letter.

3. Allele – the dominant or recessive form of a

gene. You inherit one allele from mom and one
from dad

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4. Genotype – the genetic make up of an individual.
ex. TT, Tt, tt

a. Homozygous – (pure) both alleles

are the same ex. TT – tall
tt – short

b. Heterozygous-­‐ (hybrid)
possessing two different alleles for the
same trait

ex. Tt

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5. Phenotype – The appearance of the offspring
(you can see the phenotype)
Genotype Phenotype

TT Tall

Tt Tall

tt Short
 Mendel’s 2nd Law:
Segregation and Recombination

Gametes formed during meiosis separate alleles so

that each gamete contains only one gene for each
trait. At fertilization the alleles combine to form new
combinations.

Mendel tested this hypothesis by predicting the

outcome of crosses he never did before

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Punnett square – used to predict the outcome of
genetics crosses
1n
Tt gametes
2n
parents
T t

T TT Tt
Each box
represents
Tt
a possible
t Tt tt offspring

1n
gametes
M
e
tall and ¼ would be short 20
Hybrid Cross – When two heterozygotes are
crossed, there are 3 possible genotypes which occur
in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio.

1 Homozygous Dominant
2 Heterozygous Dominant
1 Homozygous Recessive

The phenotypic ratios are

3 : 1 3
Dominant : 1
Recessive

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 It is not possible to tell the appearance if an
individual is showing a dominant trait that is pure
(BB) or hybrid (Bb).
Therefore you must perform a test cross

Test Cross – To determine the genotype of an

organism showing a dominant phenotype, cross the
organism with a recessive individual. If any recessive
offspring are produced the individual is heterozygous.

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 Ex. Lets do a test for eye color Bb or BB
B=Brown b=blue

• BB x bb = 100% brown

• Bb x bb = 50% brown 50% blue

V. Codominance – some traits are controlled
by 2 different dominant alleles. Both alleles are
dominant, and there are two dominant
phenotypes. A heterozygote expresses both
phenotypes at the same time.

Ex. coat color in cattle.

CR CR = red coat CW
CW = white coat CR
CW = roan coat

Roan is a mixture of red and white hairs that give a

brownish appearance called roan.

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Ex. Lets do a test for coat color
R = Red

W = White
VI. Incomplete dominance – (blending
inheritance) sometimes an allele is only
partly dominant over another.

In a heterozygote the dominant allele is only

partially expressed and the phenotype is between
the two homozygous forms.

Ex. Snap dragons or Japanese 4

o’clock Rlowers.

RR = red WW =
white RW =
pink
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Ex. Lets do a test for Ylower color
R = Red

W = White
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Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment

Two traits will be inherited independently of each

other, provided their genes are located on non-­‐
homologous chromosomes.

When gametes form, the alleles for different traits

segregate independently of each other.

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 Gene Linkage – If the genes for two different
traits are located on the same chromosome pair
(homologous chromosomes), they are said to be
linked, and are usually inherited together.

Ex. The gene for eye and hair color are on the same
chromosome. Blond hair is often inherited with blue
eyes.

Crossing over – In the 1st meiotic division the

chromatids of homologous chromosomes may
exchange segments. This results in the
rearrangement of linked genes and increases
variability of offspring.
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Multiple Alleles – some traits are controlled by
more than 2 different alleles types.

Ex. Human blood types – The inheritance of

blood types in humans can be explained by a
model in which there are 3 alleles for blood type.

IA = A
protein IB =
B protein
i = no
protein

IA and IB are both 31

Blood Type Genotypes
A IAIA IA i
B IB I B IB i
AB I A IB

O ii

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Sex determination –Scientists have discovered that
chromosomes in cells from males and females
were identical except for one pair

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

• 22 pairs of autosomes
• pair of sex chromosomes

The sex chromosomes are called X and Y

The XX condition produces females, and the XY condition

produces males.

Who determines the sex of the child?

Ans. The man. A woman’s egg’s all have the X
chromosome, but due to meiosis 50% of a man’s
sperm are X and50% are Y. 33
 Sex Linkage – Thomas Hunt Morgan’s work
with Drosophila (fruit Yly) demonstrated that
some genes are located on the X chromosome
and do not have a corresponding allele on the Y
chromosome.

Since many sex-­‐linked genes are recessive,

they are expressed in males more than in
females.

Why?

A female must have both recessive alleles, but

the male can show the recessive trait with only
one allele.
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Ex. Hemophilia and colorblindness in humans.

XNXN ‐-­
normal female XNXn ‐-­
carrier
female XnXn male
XNY ‐-­ normal ‐-­
colorblind
X female male
nY ‐-­ colorblind

Because a man has only one X chromosome he will

show a recessive phenotype with only one allele
for that trait.
How do you get a colorblind female?

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XII. Heredity and the Environment – The environment
interacts with genes in the development and expression
of inherited traits

Ex. Effect of light on chlorophyll

production Plant grown in dark – white
Plant grown in light – green

Ex. Effect of temp. on color of the Himalayan rabbit.

Usually the rabbit has white fur with black ears and
paws. If you shave the rabbit and place an ice pack on
the shaved area it will grow black hair in that area.
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