STYLISTICS

“Proper words in proper places make the true definition

of style.” (Jonathan Swift)
 GENERAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

• To introduce students to the study and analysis of language in different domains of interest
• To explore the various linguistic and stylistic features used in written and spoken language and how they
contribute to meaning and style
• To develop critical thinking skills for analysing and evaluating the language, structure and style of different
types of texts
• To familiarise students with key theories, concepts and methodologies used in the field of stylistics
• To provide hands-on experience in analysing different types of texts using stylistic techniques and methods
• To encourage students to reflect on their own writing and speaking styles and to develop the skills to
analyse and evaluate the style of others
• To foster an appreciation for the role of language in literature and its influence on literary meaning and
interpretation
 STYLE - A BREEDING GROUND FOR AMBIGUITY

• “At its simplest, style refers to the manner of expression in writing or speaking, just as there is a manner of doing things […]. We
might talk of someone writing in an ‘ornate style’, or speaking in a ‘comic style’. For some people, style has evaluative
connotations: style can be ‘good’ or ‘bad.’” (Wales, 1994: 435)
• Style as language variation: “…there are different styles in different situations […]; also that the same activity can produce stylistic
variation […]. So, style can be seen as variation in language use, whether literary or non-literary. […] Style may vary not only from
situation to situation but according to medium and degree of formality: what is sometimes termed style-shifting.” (Wales, 1994:
435-436)
• “In each case, style is seen as distinctive: in essence, the set or sum of linguistic features that seem to be characteristic: whether
of register, genre or period etc. Style is very commonly defined in this way, especially at the level of the text […]. When applied to
the domain of an author’s entire oeuvre, style is the set of features peculiar to, or characteristic of an author: his or her ‘language
habits’ or idiolect.” (Wales, 1994: 436).
• Style as deviation: “Another differential approach to style is to compare one set of features with another in terms of deviation
from a norm […]. It would be wrong to imply that style itself is deviant in the sense of ‘abnormal’, even though there are marked
poetic idiolect like those of Hopkins, Dylan Thomas or E.E. Cummings. Rather, we match any text or piece of language against the
linguistic norm of its genre, or its period, and the common core of language as a whole. Different texts will reveal different
patterns of dominant or foregrounded features.” (Wales, 1994: 437)
 STYLE - A BREEDING GROUND FOR AMBIGUITY
• Galperin (1971) looks upon the concept as having multiple interrelated meanings: a tool in the teaching of the manner in
which a composition must be written; revealing the correspondence between thought and expression; denoting the
individual use of language, not to mention the times it refers to general or abstract notions or concepts, thus enhancing
its ambiguity and vagueness. Hence, the extraordinary difficulty when trying to define it as clearly as possible.
• He records a brief history of the concept and of its definitions:
- “Style is the man himself.” (Buffon)
- “Style is depth.” (Darbyshire)
- “Style is deviation.” (Enkvist)
- “Style is the quality of language which communicates precisely emotions and thoughts, or a system of emotions and
thoughts, peculiar to the author.” (J. Middleton Murry)
- “Style is a contextually restricted linguistic variation.” (Enkvist)
- “Style is a selection of non-distinctive features of language.” (L. Bloomfield)
- “Style is simply synonymous with form or expression and hence a superfluous term.” (Benedetto Croce)
- “Style is essentially a citational process, a body of formulae, a memory (almost in the cybernetic sense of the word), a
cultural and not an expressive inheritance.” (Roland Barthes)
- “Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices among linguistic possibilities.” (S. Chatman)
• Style features (Sandig and Selting): lexical, syntactic, phonological and graphological, pragmatic
 WHAT IS THE ESSENCE OF STYLE?

In the broadest sense, style can be applied to both spoken and written, both
literary and non-literary varieties of language but, by tradition, it is mostly
associated with written literary texts.
Proust: “Style is to the writer what colour is to the painter: it is a matter not of
technique but of a highly personal mode of vision.”
Hockett: “Two utterances in the same language, which convey approximately
the same information, but which are different in their linguistic structure, can be
said to differ in style.”
Enkvist: “Deviation from a contextually related norm is fundamental to the
concept of style.”
 WHAT IS STYLISTICS?
• Stylistics is “the study of style; yet, just as style can be viewed in several ways, so there are several different
stylistic approaches. This variety in stylistics is due to the main influences of linguistics and literary
criticism. […] The goal of most stylistic studies is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for
their own sake, but in order to show their functional significance for the interpretation of the text; or in
order to relate literary effects to linguistic ‘causes’ where these are felt to be relevant.” (Wales, 1994: 437-
438)
• Besides the reader’s initial aesthetic response to the text, there is the need for “some technique which will
help to clarify the meaning of a text. Stylistics, then, hopes to provide just such a technique of
comprehensive analysis”. (Crystal, 1993: 214)
• Stylistics enables us to perform a “close examination of the linguistic peculiarities of a text towards an
understanding of the anatomy and functions of language. The celebrated Socratic phrase ‘the examined life’
is often invoked to remind us of our need to subject all our behaviour to rational and moral self-scrutiny;
stylistics nails its colours to an analogous slogan, the need for and the value of ‘the examined text’”.
(Toolan, 1998: IX)
 WHAT IS STYLISTICS?
• “By ‘stylistics’ I mean the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view
that distinguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is
essentially a means of linking the two and has (as yet at least) no autonomous domain of its own. […]
Stylistics, however, involves both literary criticism and linguistics, as its morphological make-up suggests:
the ‘style’ component relating it to the former and the ‘istics’ component to the latter”. (Widdowson, 1997:
3)
 WHAT IS STYLISTICS?

• “Stylistics, also called linguo-stylistics, is a branch of general linguistics. It deals mainly with
two interdependent tasks: a) the investigation of the inventory of special language media which
by their ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance, and b) certain types of
texts (discourse) which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished
by the pragmatic aspect of the communication.” (Galperin, 1971: 9)
• Leon Leviţchi adds a modern touch to the same interdisciplinary theory on stylistics by altering
the terminology of what he calls a triad, i.e. author – work – reader has become emitter –
message – receiver. He notices that, if at the beginning the focus was on the author/ emitter, more
attention was later paid to the work/ message, only to lead nowadays to an ever growing interest
in the reader/ receiver’s response.
 WHAT IS STYLISTICS?
•Stylistics is the study of the ways in which meaning is created through language in
literature as well as in other types of text.
•Stylistic analysis typically focuses on: phonological, lexical, grammatical, semantic,
pragmatic, discoursal features of text.
•Stylistic approaches show an interest in:
- The producer of the text
- Investigating the style of a particular author
- The text itself
- The reader and the role readers play in meaning construction
• The eclectic nature of the field has allowed views borrowed from disciplines such
as philosophy, cultural theory, sociology, history and psychology to find their way
into the stylistic analysis of literature.
 BRANCHES OF STYLISTICS – A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
• Aristotle’s Rhetoric
• 1960s – Russian Formalism – Roman Jakobson and Victor Shklovsky
- They wished to make literary inquiry more “scientific” by basing it firmly on explicit observations about the formal linguistic features of the
texts under scrutiny.
- Interested in “literariness”
- They focused their stylistic investigation almost solely on poetry.
- They were criticised for their overriding focus on linguistic form at the expense of other features and for the tendency to ignore the
significance of contextual factors such as the pragmatic, social and historical contexts of these texts.
• 1970s – Functionalist stylistics – Halliday
- Focus on language as a “social semiotics”, i.e. a linguistic meaning-making as a social phenomenon, influencing and influenced by the
context in which it occurs
- Analysis of the experiential, interpersonal and textual functions of language as it is used in a specific context
• Late 1980s-the beginning of the 1990s – Pragmatic stylistics
- Concerned with language in use and the significance of contextual factors such as the linguistic, social, cultural and
authorial contexts of the production and reception of texts
 BRANCHES OF STYLISTICS – A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
• Cognitive stylistics – recent trend
- Fuses cognitive science, linguistics and literary studies in analyses where meaning is seen as a product
of the text AND the human conceptualization of it – equal importance is ascribed to the text and to the
reader
• Corpus stylistics – recent trend
- Corpus stylisticians apply the methods of modern corpus linguistics to the analysis of large amounts
of literary texts and other linguistic data and fuse it with the major tenets of stylistics.
• Multimodal stylistics – a relatively new actor on the stylistics scene
- Interested in the meaning-making done not only by wording, but also by other semiotic modes
involved in literary as well as other types of text: typography, layout, colour and visual images
• Historical stylistics
- Aims at exploring historical texts from a stylistic perspective, or at examining linguistic aspects of style
as they either change or remain stable over time
 ESSENTIALS OF STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

•Stylistic analysis – the foregrounding of the most important features of style present in a text
•Stylistic analysis – the interaction of form and matter – seeing how the message of the author is
brought home to the reader through stylistic devices and their function
•The goal of stylistic analysis – the clarification of the full meaning and potential of the message of the
author, all language phenomena that occur in a text forming a complex and intricate web
•Stylistic context: - microcontext (narrow context)
- macrocontext (broad context)
 LITERARY STYLISTICS VS. LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF STYLE

•M. Short – Exploring the language of poems, plays and prose:

“(…) Stylistics can sometimes look like either linguistics or literary criticism, depending upon where you are
standing when looking at it. So, some of my literary critical colleagues sometimes accuse me of being an
unfeeling linguist, saying that my analyses of poems, say, are too analytical, being full of linguistic jargon
and leaving insufficient room for personal preference on the part of the reader. My linguistic colleagues,
on the other hand, sometimes say that I’m no linguist at all, but a critic in disguise, who cannot make his
descriptions of language precise enough to count as real linguistics. (…) I think I’ve got the mix just right, of
course.”
•Stylistics – a dialogue between the literary reader and the linguistic observer
•The linguist’s angle – why does the author here choose to express himself in this particular way?
•The literary reader’s or the critic’s viewpoint – how is such-and-such an aesthetic effect achieved through
language?
•Stylistics’ aim: to relate the literary reader’s or the critic’s concern of aesthetic appreciation with the linguist’s
concern of linguistic description
 LITERARY STYLISTICS VS. LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF STYLE
At which end do we start, the aesthetic or the linguistic?
Leech and Short (1990: 4)

Galperin (1971) – level-oriented approach

1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices
2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices
3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices
 PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

a. onomatopoeia (direct and indirect): ding-dong; silver bells... tinkle,

tinkle
b. alliteration (initial rhyme): to rob Peter to pay Paul;
c. rhyme (full, incomplete, compound or broken, eye rhyme, internal
rhyme; also, stanza rhymes: couplets, triple, cross, framing/ring);
d. rhythm
 LEXICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
3 subdivisions:
I. different types of a word's meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal, and emotive
A. means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings
metaphor: Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still. (Byron)
metonymy: The camp, the pulpit and the law
For rich man's sons are free. (Shelly)
irony: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.
B. means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings
polysemy: Massachusetts was hostile to the American flag, and she would not allow it to be hoisted on her State House.
zeugma and pun: May's mother always stood on her gentility; and Dot's mother never stood on anything but her active
little feet. (Dickens)
C. means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings
interjections and exclamatory words
epithet: a well-matched, fairly-balanced give-and-take couple. (Dickens)
oxymoron: populous solitude, proud humility. (Byron)
D. the interaction of logical and nominal meanings
antonomasia: Mr. Facing-Both-Ways does not get very far in this world. (The Times)
 LEXICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
II. the interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously, materialised in the context
simile: treacherous as a snake, faithful as a dog, slow as a tortoise
periphrasis: a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex. (women)
euphemism: In private I should call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words: 'Reckless disregard for truth'.
(Galsworthy)
hyperbole: The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them
light. (Dickens)
III. stable word combinations in their interaction with the context
clichés: clockwork precision, crushing defeat, the whip and carrot policy
proverbs and sayings: Come! he said, milk's spilt. (Galsworthy)
epigrams: A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (Keats)
quotations: Ecclesiastes said, 'that all is vanity'. (Byron)
allusions: Shakespeare talks of the herald Mercury. (Byron)
decomposition of set phrases: You know which side the law's buttered. (Galsworthy)
 SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

The main criteria for classifying syntactical stylistic devices

are:
• the juxtaposition of the parts of an utterance;
• the type of connection of the parts;
• the peculiar use of colloquial constructions;
• the transference of structural meaning.
 SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
Devices built on the principle of juxtaposition
inversion (several types): Down dropped the breeze. (Colerigde)
detached constructions: She was lovely: all of her - delightful. (Dreiser)
parallel constructions: The seeds ye sow—another reaps, The
robes ye weave—another wears The
arms ye forge—another bears. (Shelley)
chiasmus: In the days of old men made manners
Manners now make men. (Byron)
repetition: For glances beget ogles, ogles sighs, sighs wishes, wishes words, and words a letter. (Byron)
enumeration: The principle production of these towns... appear to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers, and
dock-yard men. (Dickens)
climax: They looked at hundred of houses, they climbed thousands of stairs, they inspected innumerable kitchens.
(Maugham)
antithesis: Youth is lovely, age is lonely; Youth is fiery, age is frost. (Longfellow)
 SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES
Devices based on the type of connection

asyndeton: I came, I saw, I conquered.

polysyndeton: The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect. (Dickens)

gap-sentence link: She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they are in Italy. (It means-Those who ought to be the sufferers are enjoying
themselves in Italy where well-to-do English people go for holiday)

Figures united by the peculiar use of colloquial constructions

Ellipsis: John saw two hawks in the sky, and Bill saw three.

Aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative): Good intentions but -; You just come home or I'll...

Question in the narrative: Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did. How could it be otherwise? (Dickens)

Represented speech (uttered and unuttered or inner represented speech):

Marshal asked the crowd to disperse and urged responsible diggers to prevent any disturbance... (Prichard)

Over and over he was asking himself, would she receive him?

Transferred use of structural meaning

Rhetorical questions: How long must we suffer? Where is the end? (Norris)

Litotes: He was no gentle lamb (London); Mr. Bardell was no deceiver. (Dickens)
 ESSENTIALS OF STYLISTIC ANALYSIS
In a nutshell, the essentials of stylistic analysis may involve the following steps:
• Reading the text closely and attentively to get a good understanding of its content and form;
• Identifying linguistic and literary devices used in the text, such as figurative language, imagery, metaphor, simile,
and syntax;
• Analysing the effect of the devices on the meaning of the text and how they contribute to its overall style;
• Examining the choice of words, their connotations and associations, and how they contribute to the tone and
atmosphere of the text;
• Considering the structure of the text, including its narrative style, its use of dialogue, and its organization of
information;
• Taking into account the context in which the text was produced, including the historical and cultural background,
the author's intended audience, and the purpose of the text;
• Evaluating the overall impact of the style on the reader and how it contributes to the effectiveness of the text in
achieving its intended purpose.
 KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS
• ALLEGORY – a narrative in which a character, place, or event is used to deliver a broader message about
real-world issues and occurrences
• ALLITERATION – stylistic device consisting of the repetition of the same consonant sound in nearby
words
e.g.: “Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness” (Keats – To Autumn)
• ANAPHORA – figure of speech involving repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive
clauses, sentences or verses
e.g.: “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and
in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender. (W. Churchill)
• ANTONOMASIA – the substitution of an ADJECTIVE PHRASE OR NOUN PHRASE for a well-known proper
name: The Iron Duke (The Duke of Wellington)
- the use of a proper name generically as a common noun to refer to a class or type: He’s a Casanova.
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• APHORISM – a statement or maxim expressing some general or gnomic truth about (human) nature
e.g.: “If you judge a fish by its ability to climb trees, it will spend its whole life thinking it is stupid.”
(A. Einstein)
• APOCOPE – the omission or elision of the last syllable(s) of a word: oft(en), ad(vert)(isement), goss(ip)
• ASSONANCE – stylistic device consisting of the repetition of the same vowel sound in nearby words,
usually in stressed syllables
e.g.: “The rain in Spain stays mainly on the plain.” (G. B. Shaw, Pygmalion)
“And so all the night-tide, I lie down by the side of my darling-my darling- my life and my bride.”
(E. A. Poe, Annabelle Lee)
• CATAPHORA – a kind of linguistic reference which is “forward-looking” rather than “backward-
looking”
e.g.: If she’s thinking of applying for that job, Kate had better apply quickly.
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• CLICHÉ – collocations or idioms which have been used so often (used pejoratively) that they have
lost their precision or force
• COHESION – the linking of sentences into a text
e.g.: “I bought some hummus to eat with celery. Green vegetables can boost your metabolism.
The Australian Greens is a political party. I couldn’t decide what to wear to the New Year’s party.”
- Cohesive devices effectively help the discourse flow: collocations, lexical repetition, linking
adverbials, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, synonymy/antonymy, hypernyms/hyponyms and
reference (anaphoric, cataphoric, deictic)
• COHERENCE – defined as understanding: cohesive ties, formatting technique, inference, logical
ordering of information, semantic patterning and consistency
• COLLOCATION – the habitual juxtaposition of a particular word with another word with a frequency
greater than chance
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION

- DENOTATION – the direct definition of the word that you find in the dictionary
- CONNOTATION – the emotional suggestion of a word, that is not literal
e.g.: blue
• DEIXIS – the use of certain linguistic expressions to locate entities in spatio-temporal, social and
discoursal context
e.g.: person deixis, place deixis, time deixis, discourse deixis
• ELLIPSIS – omission of part of an utterance or grammatical structure, which can be easily understood
by the hearer or reader in the co-text or the context
• EUPHEMISM – a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or
blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.
e.g.: passed away, passed over to the other side, departed instead of died
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• HENDIADYS – a figure of rhetoric where two nouns connected by the conjunction and are used
instead of the more usual adjective + noun construction, to give emphasis
e.g.: “The heaviness and guilt within my bosom take off my manhood.” (Shakespeare, Cymbeline)
• HYPERBOLE – an exaggeration or overstatement used for serious, comic or ironic effect
• LITOTES – a rhetorical figure, common in ordinary speech, which depends on understatement for its
effect; it is the opposite of HYPERBOLE or OVERSTATEMENT
e.g.: He isn’t the brightest bulb in the box.
It could be worse.
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• METAPHOR – a common trope in rhetoric, when one field or domain of reference is carried over
onto another on the basis of some perceived similarity between the two fields
e.g.: “The world is an unweeded garden,
That grows to seed.” (W. Shakespeare, Hamlet)
• METONYMY – a trope by which the name of a referent is replaced by the name of an attribute or of
an entity related in some semantic way
e.g.: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)
• OXYMORON – a figure of rhetoric which juxtaposes apparently contradictory expressions for witty or
striking effects
• PARADOX – a statement which is apparently self-contradictory, a kind of expanded OXYMORON
e.g.: “Man is born free and everywhere is in chains.” (J.J. Rousseau, Du contrat social)
“The youth is wasted on the young.” (G. B. Shaw)
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• PERSONIFICATION – a figure of speech in which an inanimate object, animate non-human or

abstract quality is given human attributes
e.g.: “The Heart wants what it wants – or else it does not care.” (Emily Dickinson)
• POLYPTOTON – a figure of rhetoric in which a word derived from the same root is repeated (by
conversion, affixation, etc.)
e.g.: “To be ignorant of one’s ignorance is the malady of the ignorant.” (A. Bronson Alcott)
“Love is an irresistible desire to be irresistibly desired.” (R. Frost)
• POLYSYNDETON – the marked use of several conjunctions in succession (especially the same one),
particularly for coordinate clauses or phrases
e.g.: “Mrs. Hurst and her sister allowed it to be so – but still they admired her and liked her, and
pronounced her to be a sweet girl and one whom they would not object to know more of.” (J.
Austen, Pride and Prejudice)
  

KEY TERMS IN STYLISTICS

• PUN – an ambiguity, specifically a foregrounded lexical ambiguity

e.g.: “Denial ain’t just a river in Egypt.” (M. Twain)
“I’ve realised for the first time in my life the vital importance of Being Earnest.” (O. Wilde, The
Importance of Being Earnest)
• SYNECDOCHE – a trope in rhetoric in which part of a referent is named and stands for the “whole” or
vice versa
e.g.: “strings” can mean “stringed instruments” (part for the whole)
“England” can mean “a sports team” (whole for the part)
• ZEUGMA – a figure of speech in which either 1) two nouns are governed by a single verb, but where
a difference in meaning is involved or 2) where one verb serves more than one clause
e.g.: 1) “Time and her aunt moved slowly.” (Pride and Prejudice, J. Austen)
2) “But passion lends them power, time means, to meet…” (Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare)
  FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

A functional style of a language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.
(Galperin, 1977:33)
Any functional style is characterised by a peculiar use of various language means and distinguished by one or some especially
prominent features.
The analysis of linguistic idiosyncrasies of a functional style includes the description of its: layout, vocabulary, grammar, sentence
structure and phonetics and phonology.
One of the widely accepted classifications comprises the following functional styles (Galperin, 1977: 250-319):
• The scientific prose style
• The style of official documents
• The publicist style
• The newspaper style
• The belles-lettres or literary style
The description of specific features of other styles and their substyles can also be found in Kukharenko (2003) and Arnold (1981).
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF SCIENCE
Layout of scientific texts

• Paragraphs are usually well-organised, consisting of an introduction, body and conclusion, fact which leads to
clarity of data and ideas;
• Titles and subtitles summarise the main point or emphasize central ideas of a paragraph or text and may contain
different graphological types (e. g. bold type, italics, capitalization, spacing etc.);
• Figures, equations, diagrams, tables and symbols are used to explain the results and to make them clear and
accurate;
• The use of quotations, references and footnotes;
• In scientific proper and technical texts, e.g. mathematics: highly formalized text with the prevalence of formulae,
tables, diagrams supplied with concise commentary phrases.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF SCIENCE
Vocabulary of scientific texts
• It includes terminology, jargon specific to a definite field of science and technology;
• Stylistically neutral words in their primary, logical meaning are used;
• Colloquial vocabulary is not characteristic of this particular style;
• The scientific vocabulary abounds in set-phrases and clichés which add precision, clarity or logical
cohesion to the text;
• Extensive use of bookish words e. g. presume, infer, preconception, cognitive.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF SCIENCE

Grammar of scientific texts

• The verbs are predominantly used in three main tense forms: Past Tense Simple (to indicate past
achievements and discoveries), Present Tense Simple (to imply a reference to present time, to give
account of scientific facts) or Present Perfect (to demonstrate well-established findings and
accomplishments);
• The recurrent use of The Passive Voice;
• Noun phrases in scientific texts are long and compound, fact that contributes to precision and
formality of information;
• Adjectives and adverbs (especially adverbs of place, time, manner, reason and result) are employed
for accuracy of description.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF SCIENCE

Sentence structure of scientific texts

• The most noticeable feature of the style is the logical sequence of utterances with a clear
indication of the interrelations and interdependencies;
• Scientific prose is marked by a developed and varied system of connectives, the most frequent
of them being: logical connectives (thus, then, therefore, etc.), connectives of contrast (but, yet,
however, etc.), connectives of addition (and, or, etc.);
• Sentences in this style are of three main sentence patterns: postulatory, argumentative and
formulative;
• Logical and consistent narration, sequential presentation of material and facts;
• Extensive use of citation, references and footnotes.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF SCIENCE

Hedging – expressed through:

• Use of modal auxiliary verbs (may, might, can, could, would, should);
• Use of modal lexical verbs (to seem, to appear, to believe, to assume, to suggest, to estimate, to tend,
to think, to argue, to indicate, to propose, to speculate);
• Adjectival, adverbial and nominal modal phrases (possible, probable, un/likely, assumption, claim,
possibility, estimate, suggestion, perhaps, possibly, probably, practically, likely, presumably, virtually,
apparently);
• Approximators of degree, quantity, frequency and time (approximately, roughly, about, often,
occasionally, generally, usually, somewhat, somehow, a lot of);
• If-clauses
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF SCIENCE
Atapuerca
The chamber of Sima de los Huesos (SH) at Atapuerca, near Burgos in Northern Spain is the site of discovery of more than 1,000
fossils representing at least 30 individuals, according to the dental evidence. The site has a single human-bearing layer and shows
almost unlimited promise for future discoveries. According to J-L. Arsuaga and colleagues, in the latest of a long series of papers
reviewing discoveries at the site, the sample ―appears to document an early stage in neandertal evolution. ESR and uranium series
age for the site are at the minimum 200 kyr.
By far the largest and most complete of the middle Pleistocene samples to be discovered, the crania (figure 222) and other
materials from this Spanish site are absolutely critical to the understanding of variability and evolution in middle Pleistocene Europe.
Even excessive taxonomizers such as C. Stringer have come to realize the implications of the fact that the Atapuerca specimens show
marked variation. Variability in size and form is a normal populational characteristic in middle Pleistocene Europe, and there are
specimens at this single site that differ from each other as much as individuals from different sites that were interpreted to be
separate species. For instance, there is a distinct canine fosse in the AT 404 maxilla but none on AT 700.
Other features though to be diagnostic of Neanderthals, such as the position of the mental foramen on the mandible or the
presence and size of a gap between the back of the mandibular m3 and the front of the ramus (retromolar space, figure 223) not only
vary dramatically in this sample, but according to A. Rosas they vary systematically, according to the size of the mandible. Still arguing
for a different species in middle Pleistocene Europe, Stringer at least can no longer argue that there were two of them there. The most
spectacular of the cranial remains are two adults (cranium 4 and 5) and a juvenile (cranium 6) discovered in 1992. Even before these
fairly complete specimens were found, over 110 fragmentary cranial pieces were already known, allowing the reconstruction of two
partial cranial vaults and three additional occipital bones. These cranial remains have a number of common features.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS
Four substyles:
- The language style of business documents
- The language style of legal documents
- The language style of diplomatic documents
- The language style of military documents

Layout of official documents

• More often than not, there are no paragraphs, the entire document is one sentence divided into separate clauses, often marked by
commas or semicolons, this organisation being used in order to avoid ambiguity and cheating;
• Capitalisation is highly significant and can mark the beginning of a document, a new part of the same document or can be used to
emphasize important words.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS
Vocabulary of official documents
• The vocabulary is stylistically neutral and highly bookish;
• Archaic words (especially compound words made up of adverb and preposition: hereunder, hereinafter, etc.;
• Abstraction of persons, e.g. use of party instead of the name;
• Officialese vocabulary: clichés, opening and conclusive phrases;
• Pairs of synonyms: made and signed, terms and conditions, able and willing, reasonable and proper;
• Use of words in their primary denotative meaning;
• There is a special set of terms, phrases and clichés: aforesaid, it is understood and agreed, including without
limitation, without prejudice, solely on condition that;
• The use of Latin:(pro rata, pari passu, ad hoc) and French words (force majeure, amicably);
• The use of abbreviations (conventional symbols and marks are peculiar to this style): C&F (cost and freight),
C&I (cost and insurance), et al. (and others), v.v. (quite the opposite).
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS
Grammar of official documents
• Noun phrases are extremely long and complex, with many modifiers in postposition;
• The most widespread tense forms are Indefinite and Perfect Tenses; Continuous and Perfect Continuous
Tenses are absolutely not used;
• Sentences in the passive voice, beginning with the introductory word it and abstract nouns are mostly used;
• Non-finite forms of verbs are extensively employed (to have passed, to have taken place, to be valid);
• The modal verb shall is used in the sense of must to indicate obligations and not to refer to the future;
• Adverbs of time and place (hereto, hereby, thereof, hereunder) are widely used to achieve precision of
reference;
• Pronouns as substitutes for nouns are quite rare to avoid ambiguity of reference.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS
Sentence structure of official documents
• Use of long complex sentences with several types of coordination and
subordination (up to 70% of the text);
• Declarative sentences dominate, reflecting the obligatory nature of legal
documents;
• Clauses are complex and complicated due to many insertions and
interruptions;
• Extensive use of detached constructions and parenthesis.
 THE FUNCTIONAL STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS
Notwithstanding the termination of the hiring under clause 6 the Hirer shall pay all rent accrued
due in respect of the hiring up to the date of such termination and shall be or remain liable in
respect to any damage caused to the Owner by reason of any breach by the Hirer of any stipulation
herein contained and on the part of the Hirer to be performed or observed. At any time before the
Owner shall have recovered possession of the goods and before the Hirer shall have terminated the
hiring under section 4 of the hire-purchase act 1938 (as amended) the Hirer may on the payment to
the Owner of the total amount of any instalments then remaining unpaid of the rent hereinbefore
reserved and agreed to be paid during the terms and the further sum of ten shillings purchase the
goods.
Provided that such payment as aforesaid shall be a condition precedent to the exercise of the
option to purchase sc conferred this agreement not being an undertaking by the Owner to sell the
goods on credit or without such payment as aforesaid being first made and accordingly any notice
unaccompanied by such payment as aforesaid of an intention to exercise the said option shall be
void and shall not constitute a binding agreement to purchase or sell the goods.
 THE PUBLICIST FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Layout of publicist texts
Publicist style texts usually follow an inverted pyramid layout,
meaning the most important information is presented at the top,
followed by supporting details, and ending with less significant details.
The purpose of this format is to grab the reader's attention quickly and
provide the essential information in a succinct manner, making it easier
for the reader to understand and retain the information.
 THE PUBLICIST FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Vocabulary of publicist texts
Publicist texts typically use a professional, formal, and persuasive vocabulary that is aimed at promoting
a particular idea, product, or brand to a target audience. The tone of the text is usually positive, optimistic,
and confident, and the language is carefully chosen to evoke a certain emotional response in the reader. In
addition to using specific vocabulary, publicist texts also often employ persuasive techniques such as
hyperbole, alliteration, and repetition to emphasize key points and make the text more memorable.
Publicist texts, such as press releases or advertisements, often use certain specific vocabulary to create a
certain tone or impression. Some of these words include:
• Buzzwords: Industry-specific terms or buzzwords that aim to convey expertise and credibility;
• Power words: Words that evoke emotions, such as exciting, innovative, or revolutionary;
• Hyperbole: Exaggerated statements or claims, such as the best product ever;
• Jargon: Technical terms or specialized language that is specific to a particular field or industry;
• Marketing language: Phrases or terms that are commonly used in marketing and advertising, such as
limited time offer.
 THE PUBLICIST FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Grammar of publicist texts
• Tenses: Present Tense (Simple and Continuous), Past Tense (Simple and Continuous), and
Future Tense (Simple and Continuous) are commonly used in publicist texts;
• Nouns: concrete and abstract nouns are used, with a focus on persuasive language;
• Abstract nouns such as freedom, success, happiness, and power are frequently used to
evoke emotions and positive connotations;
• Adjectives: descriptive and evaluative adjectives are used to create vivid images, and to
evoke positive or negative emotions in the audience. Adjectives such as amazing, terrible,
incredible, miraculous, etc.;
• Adverbs: adverbs such as quickly, easily, completely, etc. are used to modify verbs and
adjectives to provide additional information about the actions or qualities being described;
• Adverbs can also be used to create a specific tone or atmosphere, such as urgency or
emphasis.
 THE PUBLICIST FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Sentence structure of publicist texts
Publicist texts typically follow a clear and concise sentence structure
that emphasizes the main message or objective. This structure usually
includes a headline or title that captures the essence of the text,
followed by an opening sentence that hooks the reader's attention. The
text then provides supporting information, facts, and details, often using
shorter sentences and simple language to make the message easy to
understand. The conclusion of the text usually sums up the main
message or calls the reader to action.
 THE LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISING
• Snikkers. OHDEER. It’s hard to spel when your hungry. If youkeap making typing mistakes grab yourself a Snickers fast.
• I Love What You Do For Me. (Toyota)
• It’s everywhere YOU want to be. (Visa)
It Could Be YOU. (The National Lottery)
• Everyone loses games. Few change them. (Nike)
Always Coca-Cola.
• Get Skintimate with your legs. (Skintimate)
The goddess of never-let-me-go. (Venus)
• Walk in. Drive out. (SBI Car Loans)
Your vision. Our future. (Olympus)
• We are the low-fare airline. (Southwest Airlines)
You get rid of dandruff. (Head & Shoulders)
• The Few. The Proud. The Marines. (US. Marine Corps)
Got Milk? (California Milk Processor Board)
 THE LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISING
• M&Ms melt in your mouth, not in your hand.
It’s not TV, it’s HBO.
• Buy it! Sell it! Love it! (eBay)
Have it your way! (Burger King)
• Impossible is nothing. (Adidas)
• Make the most of now. (Vodafone)
Stronger than dirt. (Ajax)
• Don’t be vague. Ask for Haig. (Haig scotch)
When the shoes get lighter, the moves get tighter. (Nike)
• Fila: Functional… Fashionable… Formidable. (Fila)
The daily diary of the American dream. (Wall Street Journal)
• Grace, space, pace. (Jaguar)
• At the heart of image. (Nikon)
The heartbeat of America. (Chevrolet)
• Beauty outside. Beast inside. (Apple)
American by birth. Rebel by choice. (Harley Davidson Motorcycles)
 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Layout of newspaper texts
Newspaper style layout refers to the design and arrangement
of content in a newspaper format. It typically consists of multiple
columns, headlines, subheadings, images, and articles, arranged
in a clear and organized manner to make the information easy to
read and follow. The layout of a newspaper is meant to make the
content easily accessible, visually appealing, and to make the
best use of space and printing real estate.
 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Vocabulary of newspaper texts
• Clear, precise and informative;

• Jargon specific to the subject being covered, such as legal terms in a court case or
economic terms in a business article;

• Objective and neutral language to present facts and opinions in a balanced way;

• Acronyms and abbreviations, such as NATO or GDP;

• Active voice to create a clear and direct tone;

• Simple and concise language to appeal to a wide audience.

 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Grammar of newspaper texts
• Adjectives are used to describe nouns and provide additional information about them; examples of
adjectives often used in newspaper texts include stunning, shocking, devastating, etc.;
• Nouns refer to people, places, things, or ideas; in newspaper texts, nouns are used to name
specific individuals, organizations, events, etc.;
• Verbs are used to describe actions, occurrences, or states of being;
• Tenses used in newspaper texts may include Present Tense, Past Tense, and Future Tense,
depending on the subject of the article and the context in which the information is being presented;
• Adverbs are used to describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and often provide additional
information about the manner, time, place, etc. of the action being described; examples of adverbs
often used in newspaper texts include quickly, suddenly, severely, etc.
 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Sentence structure of newspaper texts
Newspaper texts typically use simple, clear, and direct
sentence structures to convey information to a wide audience.
The most common structures are simple sentences, compound
sentences, and complex sentences. The use of short and concise
sentences helps to keep the reader’s attention and avoid
confusion. Some newspapers also use declarative, imperative,
and interrogative sentence structures, depending on the context
and purpose of the article.
 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Analyse the following text written in the publicist style from a stylistic point of view:

Join us in the fight for a better future! The time for change is now, and we need your
help. Our world is facing countless challenges, from climate change to economic inequality.
But together, we can make a difference. Whether it's through supporting organizations that
are working to create positive change or taking part in peaceful protests and demonstrations,
there are many ways to get involved and make your voice heard. Don't sit on the sidelines
and watch as our planet suffers. Join us in the fight for a better tomorrow!
 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Analyse the following newspaper headlines from a stylistic point of view:  

• New Road Project to Ease Traffic Congestion

• Record Breaking Heatwave Sweeps Across the Country

• Breaking News: Plane Crashes into Mountain, No Survivors

• President Delivers Moving Speech on National Unity

• Local Teen Wins National Science Competition

• Economy Showing Signs of Improvement, Experts Say

 THE NEWSPAPER FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Analyse the following newspaper headlines from a stylistic point of view:  

• Firefighters Battle Blaze at Downtown High-Rise

• City Council Approves Plan for New Park

• Celebrity Chef Opens New Restaurant in Trendy Neighbourhood

• International Summit on Climate Change Concludes with Key Agreements

• Police Investigate String of Burglaries in Quiet Suburban Neighbourhood

 THE LITERARY FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Layout of literary texts
• In the narrative, descriptive paragraphs tend to be organised as independent units including
interdependent ideas, having clear-cut topic sentences, amplifications and
conclusions/summaries; on the other hand, paragraphs disappear in the dialogue, dialogic
extracts representing incomplete, fragmented units that need to be taken in relation to one
another and to the large context of the narrative; in poetry, paragraphs are replaced by
stanzas;
• Capitalisation, underlining, bold type and italics are all used on occasion, mainly for emphasis;
• All punctuation marks may be used in literary language, both normally and unconventionally
by writers.
 THE LITERARY FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Vocabulary of literary texts
The vocabulary of literary texts refers to the set of words and phrases used by an
author in their writing. In literature, vocabulary can range from simple and everyday
language to complex and elevated language, depending on the tone and style of the text.
It is a crucial aspect of writing that contributes to the overall tone and meaning of the
work. A rich and varied vocabulary can help authors convey their ideas, emotions, and
perspectives more effectively and bring depth and nuance to their writing.
• Wide range of vocabulary strata in accordance with the register of communication and
participants’ roles: formal and informal, neutral and bookish, terms and foreign words;
• Use of phraseological expressions, idioms and figures of speech.
 THE LITERARY FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Grammar of literary texts
The overwhelming tense is Past Indefinite, or the narrative tense. Nevertheless, all other
tenses are used. Present Indefinite, for instance, can be used by the writer, or the narrator, to
express the timelessness of an event, an idea or a statement, or imply an attempt to relate
the past to the present as being inseparable in the chronology of certain events; moreover,
the active voice is more recurrent in literary texts than the passive;
• Adjectives are used for description and usually have an aesthetic effect;
• Adverbs of all types are popular in literary language; they may be used at will by writers, in
the text, regardless of their normal positions, depending on the effect they want to obtain;
• Modal verbs are repeatedly used, especially those of probability and ability.
 THE LITERARY FUNCTIONAL STYLE
Sentence structure of literary texts
In literary texts, sentence structure can vary greatly, from simple and
straightforward to complex and varied. The structure can be used to convey
meaning, create mood or atmosphere, emphasize certain words or ideas, or
establish rhythm and pace. Literary writers often experiment with sentence
structure, combining long and short sentences, using repetition, inversion, and
other techniques to create a desired effect. Ultimately, the choice of sentence
structure in a literary text is a deliberate and artistic choice, intended to
enhance the overall meaning and impact of the work.
 SATIRE, IRONY AND SARCASM
• SATIRE – a literary manner that blends a critical attitude with humour and wit to the end that human

institutions or society may be improved

• IRONY – a figure of speech in which the intended meaning is the opposite of that expressed by the

words used and in which laudatory expressions are used to imply condemnation or contempt; it is marked by

a sort of grim humour, a detachment and cool expression on the part of the writer when emotions are

actually heated

• SARCASM – a caustic and bitter expression of disapproval under the guise of praise
 JONATHAN SWIFT’S GULLIVER’S TRAVELS
“This magnificent palace would have infallibly been burnt down to the ground, if, by a

presence of mind, unusual to me, I had not suddenly thought of an expedient. I had the evening

before drank plentifully of a most delicious wine (…) which is very diuretic. By the luckiest chance

in the world, I had not discharged myself of any part of it. The heat I had contracted by coming

very near the flames, and by my labouring to quench them, made the wine begin to operate by

urine; which I voided in such a quantity, and applied so well to the proper places, that in three

minutes the fire was wholly extinguished, and the rest of that noble pile, which had cost so many

ages in erecting, preserved from destruction.” (p. 63)

 JONATHAN SWIFT’S GULLIVER’S TRAVELS
“And although they are dexterous enough upon a piece of paper in the management of the

rule, the pencil, and the divider, yet in the common actions and behaviour of life, I have not seen

a more clumsy, awkward, and unhandy people, nor so slow and perplexed in their conceptions

upon all other subjects, except those of mathematics and music. They are very bad reasoners, and

vehemently given to opposition, unless when they happen to be of the right opinion, which is

seldom their case. Imagination, fancy, and invention, they are wholly strangers to, nor have any

words in their language by which those ideas can be expressed; the whole compass of their

thoughts and mind being shut up within the two fore-mentioned sciences.” (pp. 155-6)
 JONATHAN SWIFT’S GULLIVER’S TRAVELS
“I went into another chamber, but was ready to hasten back, being almost overcome with a horrible

stink. My conductor pressed me forward, conjuring me in a whisper to give no offence, which would

be highly resented, and thereof I durst not so much as stop my nose. The projector of this cell was

the most ancient student of the Academy (…). When I was presented to him, he gave me a very close

embrace (a compliment I could well have excused). His employment from his first coming into the

Academy, was an operation to reduce human excrement to its original food, by separating the

several parts, removing the tincture which it receives from the gall, making the odour exhale, and

scumming off the saliva. He had a weekly allowance from the society, of a vessel filled with human

ordure, about the bigness of a Bristol barrel.” (p. 170)

 JONATHAN SWIFT’S GULLIVER’S TRAVELS
“I could not forbear shaking my head and smiling a little at his ignorance. And being no

stranger to the art of war, I gave him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines,

pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines,

countermines, bombardments, sea fights; ship sunk with a thousand men, twenty thousand killed

on each side; dying groans, limbs, flying in the air, smoke, noise, confusion, trampling to death

under horses’ feet; flight, pursuit, victory, fields strewed with carcasses left for food to dogs, and

wolves, and birds of prey; plundering, stripping, ravishing, burning and destroying. And to set

forth the valour of my own dear countrymen (…).” (p. 224)

 BLACK HUMOUR
• Black humour is an attempt to articulate the tension between the haunting absence
and disturbing presence of death.
• In black humour, topics and events that are usually regarded as taboo are treated in
an unusually humorous or satirical manner while retaining heir seriousness.
• The intent of black humour is for the audience to experience both laughter and
discomfort, sometimes simultaneously.
• Such humour can serve to shock us into being more honest about life and death
and how harmful some of our unexamined behaviour is. It steps on toes, exposes
hypocrisy, it is not afraid to challenge the cherished beliefs of a society.
• Black humour relies for its comic effect on morbidity, absurdity and anarchy and it
usually mixes humour with anger and bitterness, the lenses of black humour having
a habit of stretching the world into grotesque shapes.
 BLACK HUMOUR
• Black humour is a subgenre of comedy and satire, where topics and events
normally treated seriously – death, mass media, sickness, madness, terror, drug
abuse, rape, etc. – are treated in a humorous or satirical manner.
• Black humour novels share two traits that surface in most texts: a humorous
treatment of the absurd or morbid and a refusal to offer any solutions to the
institutions and reality being ridiculed in the texts.
• “To become conscious of what is horrifying and to laugh at it is to become
master of that which is horrifying.” (Ionesco)
• “The incongruity between form and content (what is presented and what is
happening) transforms the emotional energy of fear and pity into cathartic
laugher.” (A. Pratt, Critical Essays)
 JONATHAN SWIFT’S A MODEST PROPOSAL
• “Itis a melancholy object to those who walk through this great
town or travel in the country, when they see the streets, the
roads, and cabin doors, crowded with beggars of the female sex,
followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags and
importuning every passenger for an alms. These mothers,
instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are
forced to employ all their time in strolling to beg sustenance for
their helpless infants, who, as they grow up, either turn thieves
for want of wok, or leave heir dear native country.”
 JONATHAN SWIFT’S A MODEST PROPOSAL
• “(…) always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump
and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family
dines alone, the fore or hind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt
will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter.”
• “Many other advantages might be enumerated. For instance, the addition of some thousand carcasses in
our exportation of barrelled beef, the propagation of swine’s flesh, and improvement in the art of making
good bacon, so much wanted among us by the great destruction of pigs, too frequent at our tables; which are
no way comparable in taste or magnificence to a well grown, fat yearly child, which roasted whole will make a
considerable figure at a Lord Mayor's feast, or any other public entertainment. But this, and many others, I
omit, being studious of brevity.”
• “I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in endeavoring to promote
this necessary work, having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade,
providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children, by which I
can propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing.”
 JOSEPH HELLER’S CATCH-22
• “All over the world, boys on every side of the bomb line were laying down their lives for what they
had been told was their country, and no one seemed to mind, least of all the boys who were laying
down their young lives. There was no end in sight. The only end in sight was Yossarian’s own, and he
might have remained in the hospital until doomsday had it not been for that patriotic Texan... The
Texan wanted everybody in the ward to be happy but Yossarian and Dunbar. He was really very sick.”
• “There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one’s own
safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind. Orr was
crazy and could be grounded. All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would no longer be
crazy and would have to fly more missions. Orr would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he
didn’t, but if he was sane he had to fly them. If he flew them he was crazy and didn’t have to; but if he
didn’t want to he was sane and had to. Yossarian was moved very deeply by the absolute simplicity of
this clause of Catch-22 and let out a respectful whistle.”
 WILLIAM GOLDING’S LORD OF THE FLIES
“Ralph looked at him dumbly. For a moment he had a fleeting picture of the
strange glamour that had once invested the beaches. But the island was scorched up
like dead wood - Simon was dead - and Jack had ... The tears began to flow and sobs
shook him. He gave himself up to them now for the first time on the island; great,
shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole body. His voice rose
under the black smoke before the burning wreckage of the island; and infected by
that emotion, the other little boys began to shake and sob too. And in the middle of
them, with filthy body, matted hair, and unwiped nose, Ralph wept for the end of
innocence, the darkness of man’s heart, and the fall through the air of the true, wise
friend called Piggy.” (p. 230)
 BLACK COMEDY AND THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD
•A genre description that appears in film and theatre
•It finds humour in suffering or in the transgression of taboos related to sacredly
serious subjects, especially death.
•Black humour in drama describes “a world gone irreversibly wrong, where the logical
is the illogical, where madness is a standard condition.” (A. Pratt)
•The theatre of the absurd – the plays express what happens when human existence
lacks meaning or purpose and communication breaks down.
 SAMUEL BECKETT’S WAITING FOR GODOT
• Vladimir: And yet … (pause) … how is it (…) that of the four • Estragon: You’re sure it was this evening?
Evangelists only one speaks of a thief being saved. (…) One Vladimir: What?
out of four. Of the other three two don’t mention any thieves
at all and the third says that both of them abused him. Estragon: That we were to wait.

Estragon: Who? Vladimir: He said Saturday (Pause). I think.

Vladimir: What? Estragon: You think.

Estragon: What’s all this about? Abuses who? Vladimir: I must have made a note of it. (He fumbles in his
pockets, bursting with miscellaneous rubbish)
Vladimir: The Saviour.
Estragon: (very insidious) But what Saturday? And is it
Estragon: Why?
Saturday? Is it not rather Sunday? (Pause) Or Monday?
Vladimir: Because he wouldn’t save them? (Pause) Or Friday?
Estragon: From hell? Vladimir: (looking wildly about him, as thought the date was
Vladimir: Imbecile! From death. inscribed in the landscape) It’s not possible!

Estragon: Well (…) what of it? Estragon: Or Thursday?

Vladimir: What’ll we do?
 SAMUEL BECKETT’S WAITING FOR GODOT
• Estragon: A kind of prayer. Vladimir: His agents.
Vladimir: Precisely. Estragon: His correspondents.
Estragon: A vague supplication. Vladimir: His books.
Vladimir: Exactly. Estragon: His bank account.
Estragon: And what did he reply? • “Don’t let’s do anything, it’s safer.”
Vladimir: That he’d see.
Estragon: That he couldn’t promise anything.
Vladimir: That he’d have to think it over.
Estragon: In the quiet of his home.
Vladimir: Consult his family.
Estragon: His friends.
 SAMUEL BECKETT’S HAPPY DAYS
• “Ah yes, if only I could bear to be alone, I mean prattle away with not a soul to hear. (Pause) Not that I
flatter myself you hear much, no Willie, God forbid. (Pause) Days perhaps when you hear nothing.
(Pause) But days too when you answer. (Pause) So that I may say at all times, even when you do not
answer and perhaps hear nothing, something of this is being heard, I am not merely talking to myself, that
is in the wilderness, a thing I could never bear to do – for any length of time. (Pause) That is what enables
me to go on, go on talking that is.“ (pp. 20-21)
• “Ah yes, so little to say, so little to do, and the fear so great, certain days, of finding oneself … left, with
hours still to run, before the bell for sleep, and nothing more to say, nothing more to do, that the days go
by, certain days go by, quite by, the bell goes, and little or nothing said, little or nothing done. That is the
danger. To be guarded against.” (p. 35)
• “With the sun blazing so much fiercer down, and hourly fiercer, is it not natural things should go on fire
never known to do so, in this way I mean, spontaneous like. (Pause) Shall I myself not melt perhaps in
the end, or burn, oh I do not, mean necessarily burst into flames, no, just little by little be charred to a
black cinder, all this – (ample gesture of arms) – visible flesh.” (p. 38)
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Art-bin.Com/art/omodest.Html
2. Beckett, S., Waiting for Godot, London-Boston: Faber and Faber, 1965
3. Burke, M., The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics, London and New York: Routledge, 2014
4. Esslin, M., The Theatre of the Absurd, New York: Random House, 2001
5. Friedman, B.J. (Ed.), Black Humour, New York: Bantan, 1965
6. Galperin, I. R., Stylistics, Moscow Higher School, 1977
7. Heller, J., Catch-22, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989
8. Nagel, J. (Ed.), Critical Essays on Catch-22, Encino: Dickenson Publishing Co., 1974
9. Norgaard, N., Busse, B., Montoro, R., Key Terms in Stylistics, London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010
10. Seymour, C., Stylistics: Quantitative and Qualitative, vol. I, London: Oxford University Press, 1967
11. Sheridan, B., The Practical Stylist (4th edition), New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1977
12. Soshalskaya, E. G., Prokhorova V. I., Stylistic Analysis, Moscow: Moscow Higher School, 1976
13. Toolan, M., Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics, London and New York: Routledge, 1996
14. Wales, K., A Dictionary of Stylistics, London & New York: Longman, 1994
15. Widdowson, H. G., Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature, London: Longman, 1991
16. Wright, L., Hope, J., Stylistics. A Practical Coursebook, London and New York: Routledge, 1996
17. Zhukovska, V.V., English Stylistics: Fundamentals of Theory and Practice, 2010
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION! 