Introduction to Error Control

Coding
• Diversity makes use of redundancy in terms of using
multiple signals to improve signal quality.
• Error control coding, as discussed in this lecture and
next, uses redundancy by sending extra data bits to
detect and correct bit errors.
• Two types of coding :
• Source coding – compressing a data source using encoding of
information
• Channel coding – encode information to be able to overcome bit
errors
• Now we focus on channel coding, also called error
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control coding to overcome the bit errors of a channel.
Error Detection

• Three approaches can be used to cope with data

transmission errors.

1. Using codes to detect errors.

2. Using codes to correct errors – called Forward
Error Correction (FEC).
3. Mechanisms to automatically retransmit
(ARQ) corrupted packets.
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• Example:
• F = 500 bytes (4000 bits)
• Pb = 10-6 (a very good performing wireless link)
• Pno = (1- 10-6)4000 = 0.9960
• Pe = 1-(1- 10-6) 4000 = 0.0040
• 4 out of every 1000 packets have errors
• At 100 kbps, this means 6 packets per minute are in
error.
• Given 100 kilobyte data files:
• 200 packets per file
• Probability that the file is corrupted is
1- (1- Pno)200 = 0.551

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• If we do nothing, then a significant amount of our data will be
corrupted
• It is more likely that a complete file would be transmitted with
corruption than without corruption.

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• Error Detection

• Basic Idea: Add extra bits to a block of

data bits.
• Data block: k bits
• Error detection: n-k more bits
• Based on some algorithm for creating
the extra bits.
• Results in a frame (data link layer
packets are called “frames”) of n bits
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• Parity Check

• Simplest scheme: Add one bit to the frame.

• The value of the bit is chosen so as to make the number of 1’s
even (or odd, depending on the type of parity).
• Example
• 7 bit character: 1110001
• Even parity would make an 8 bit character of what?

• Odd parity would make an 8 bit character of what?

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• The receiver separates the data bits and the error correction bits.

• Then performs the same algorithm again to see of

the received bits are what they should have been.
• Hopefully if errors have occurred, the packet can be
retransmitted or corrected.
• “Hopefully” because there are always some error
patterns could go undetected.

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• So, this can be used to detect errors. For example,
a received 10100010 (when using even parity)
would be invalid.
• But what types of errors would NOT be
detected?

• Noise sometimes comes in impulses or during a

deep fade – so one cannot assume individual bit
errors will occur.
• Parity checks, therefore, have limited
usefullness.
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• Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC)

• Uses more than a single

parity bit.
• Adds an (n-k) bit frame
check sequence.

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• Takes the source data and creates a sequence of bits that is only
valid if divisible by a predetermined number.

• Using modulo-2 arithmetic.

• Binary addition with no carries.
• The same as the exclusive-OR operations (XOR).
• Also can be implemented by polynomial operations.

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• Using the following definitions.

• C= n-bit frame to be transmitted.

• m= k-bit block of data, or message, the first k bits of C
• F = (n-k)-bit frame check sequence, the last (n-k) bits of C
• P = pattern of n-k+1 bits; this is the predetermined divisor.

• The goal is for C/P to have no remainder.

• So, C = 2n-km + F
• This means m is shifted by (n-k) bits and F is added to it.
• Example: m = 11111, F=101
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• C = 11111000 + 101 = 11111101
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• Using polynomial operations.
• In the example, m = 110101
• This could also be represented as a polynomial as
m(X) = X5+ X4+ X2+1
• From bit positions in P of order 0 to 5.
• Using polynomial operations indirectly performs modulo-2
arithmetic.
• CRC codes fail when a sequence of bit errors creates a
different bit sequence that is also divisible by P.

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• It can be shown that the following errors can be prevented by
suitably chosen values for P, and the related P(X).
• All single bit errors will be detected.
• All double-bit errors.
• Any odd number of errors.
• Any burst error for which the length of the burst is less than or
equal to (n-k)
• This means the burst is less than the frame check sequence.
Definition : A burst error is a contiguous set of bits where all of the bits
are in error.

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 Different versions of P(X) are widely used (different bit
lengths).
• For example, CRC-16.
P(X) = X16+ X15+ X2+1

• Checksums
• The Internet Protocol uses a checksum approach.
• Only on the packet header information.
• All of the 16-bit words in the header are added
together.
• A checksum is then inserted into to the header.
• At the receiver, all of the 16-bit words are added
again, and this time (because the checksum was
inserted) should sum to zero.
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 Block Error Correction Codes
• Error detection requires blocks to be retransmitted.
1. The bit error rate can be quite high, which would
result in a large number of retransmissions.
2. In some cases, especially satellite links, the
propagation delay is very long compared to the
transmission time of a single frame. The result is a
very inefficient system.

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• It is desirable to be
able to correct
errors without
requiring
retransmission.
• Using the bits
that were
transmitted.

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• On transmission, the k-bit block of data is mapped into an
n-bit block called a codeword (C).
• Using an FEC encoder.
• A codeword may or may not be similar to those form
the CRC approach above.
• It may come from taking the original data and adding
extra bits (as with CRC). (systematic)
• Or it may be created using a completely new set of
bits. (Non-systematic)

• The codewords are longer than the original data.

• Then the block is transmitted.
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• At the receiver, comparing the received codeword with
the set of valid codewords can result in one of five
possible outcomes
1. There are no bit errors
• The received codeword is the same as the
transmitted codeword.
• Then the corresponding source data for that
codeword is output from the decoder.
2. An error is detected and can be corrected
• For certain bit error patterns, it is clear that the
received codeword is close to a valid codeword.
• It is assumed that the closely codeword was sent.
• It is assumed that the source data for that
codeword should be used.
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3. An error is detected but cannot be corrected.
• The received codeword is close to two or more valid
codewords.
• One cannot assume which codeword was the original.
• So, it is decided only that an error has been detected and the
frame should be retransmitted.
4. An error is not detected.
• An error pattern occurs that transforms the transmitted
codeword into another valid codeword.
• The receiver assumes no error has occurred.
• The output from the decoder is the source data for a wrong
codeword.
• Hopefully other application processes will also check the
validity of the data.
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5. An error is detected and is erroneously corrected.
• An error pattern creates a new codeword that is
close to a valid codeword.
• But the one it is close to is not the one that was
sent.
• Therefore, the decoder outputs the source data
for a wrong codeword.

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• Block Code Principles

• Hamming Distance
• Given are two example sequences.
v1 = 011011, v2 = 110001
• The Hamming Distance is defined as the
number of bits which disagree.
d(v1 , v2 ) = 3

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• Example: Given k = 2, n = 5

• Suppose the following is received: 00100

• This is not a valid codeword.
• An error is detected

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• Can the error be corrected?
• We cannot be sure.
• 1, 2, 3, 4, or even 5 bits may have been corrupted by
noise.
• However, only one bit is different between this and
00000.
d(00100,00000) = 1
• Two bits changes would have been required between
this and 00111.
d(00100,00111) = 2
• Three bits with 11110. d(00100,11110) = 3
• And four bits with 11001. d(00100,11001) = 4
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• Thus the most likely codeword that was sent is
00000.
• The output from the decoder is then the data
block 00.
• But there we could be having a failed correction
and some other data block should have been
decoded.
• Decoding rule: Use the closest codeword (in terms
of Hamming distance).
• Why is it okay to do this? How much less likely are
two errors than one error? Assume BER = 10-3. 27
• Now, for all cases…
• There are five bits in the codeword, so there
are 25=32 possible received codewords.
• Four are valid, the other 28 would come
from bit errors.
• In many cases, a possible received codeword is
a Hamming distance of 1 from a valid
codeword.
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• But in eight cases, a received codeword would be a
distance of 2 away from two valid codewords.
• The receiver does not know how to choose.
• A correction decision is undecided.
• An error is detected but not correctable.
• So, we can conclude that in this case an error of 1
bit is correctable, but not errors of two bits.

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• Example: A 2/5 rate code over a 30 kbps channel.

• Net data rate?

• Data rate for error control codes?

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• For a code consisting of codewords denoted wi, the minimum
Hamming distance is defined as

• For the example: v1 = 011011, v2 = 110001, dmin = 3.

• The maximum number of guaranteed correctable errors is

• The symbol means to round down to the next lowest integer.

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• From the example, tcorr = (3-1)/2 = 1 bit error can be corrected.
• A two-bit error will cause either an undecided correction or a
failed correction.
• The number of errors that can be detected is

• From the example, tdet = 3-1 = 2

• All two-bit errors will be detected.
• As little as a three bit error might cause a failed detection.

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• The following design considerations are involved with devising
codewords.
• For given values of n and k, we would like the largest possible
value of dmin.
• The code should be relatively easy to encode and decode, with
minimal memory and processing time.
• We would like the number of extra bits, (n-k) to be minimum to
preserve bandwidth.
• We would like the number of extra bits, (n-k) to be large to
reduce error rate.
• The last two objectives are in conflict.
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• Coding Gain

• Coding can allow us to use lower power (smaller Eb/N0)

to achieve the same error rate we would have had
without using correction bits.
• Since errors can be corrected.
• The curve below on the right is for an uncoded
modulation system.
• Above 5.4 dB, a smaller bit error rate can be achieved
using a ½ rate code for the same Eb/N0

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• The coding gain of a code is defined as the
reduction in dB of Eb/N0 that is required to obtain
the same error rate.
• For example, for a BER of 10-6, 11 dB is needed for
the ½ rate code, as compared to 13.77 dB
without the coding.
• This is a coding gain of 2.77 dB.
• What is the coding gain at a BER of 10-3?

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