Training and Development

1. Training vs. Development. 2. Importance of Training. 3. Types of Training. 4. Training Process Model. 5. Learning Principles. 6. Training Methods.

1. Training vs. Development 1. Difference Between Training (Figure 8.1)

Training focuses on Development focuses on specific job broad knowledge and knowledge and skill insights that may be that is to be applied in required for adaptation the short run. to environmental demands in the future.

2. Importance of Training
1. Respond to technology changes affecting job requirements. 2. Respond to organizational restructuring. 3. Adapt to increased diversity of the workforce. 4. Support career development.

5. Fulfill employee need for growth.

Examples of Training Investments

Industry and government in the United States spend approximately $90 billion each year on employee training and education. Average U. S. company spends about 1.4% of budget on training compared to 5% for German companies and 6% for Japanese companies.

Study of major automobile manufactures found U. S automakers spend about 40 hours training new employees compared to 300 hours for Japanese and German automakers. In early 1980s, Motorolas CEO required all divisions to spend at least 2% of budget on training. Over next 7 years, profits increased 47% and it was estimated that each $1.00 in training yielded $30.00 in return.

3. Types3. Types of Training of Training (pp. 275-282)

1. Skills Training.
2. Retraining.

5. Creativity Training.
6. Literacy Training.

3. Cross-Functional.
4. Team Training.

7. Diversity Training.
8. Customer Service.

1. SKILLS TRAINING

Focus on job knowledge and skill for: Instructing new hires. Overcoming performance deficits of the workforce.

2. Retraining

Maintaining worker knowledge and skill as job requirements change due to: Technological innovation Organizational restructuring

3. Cross-Functional Training

Training employees to perform a wider variety of tasks in order to gain: Flexibility in work scheduling. Improved coordination.

4. Team Training

Training self-directed teams with regard to: Management skills. Coordination skills. Cross-functional skills.

5. Creativity Training

Using innovative learning techniques to enhance employee ability to spawn new ideas and new approaches.

Figure 8.8 Creativity Training Methods

Analogies and metaphors Using comparisons and finding similarities.

Free Association Freely thinking of words linked to specific problems can give insight. Personal Analogy Placing oneself as the source of a problem to gain insight. Mind Mapping Generating issues and drawing lines to identify relationships among the issues.

6. Literacy Training
Improving basic skills of the workforce such as mathematics, reading, writing, and effective employee behaviors such as punctuality, responsibility, cooperation,etc.

7. Diversity Training Instituting a variety of programs to instill awareness, tolerance, respect, and acceptance of persons of different race, gender, etc. and different backgrounds.

8. Customer Service Training

Training to improve communication, better response to customer needs, and ways to enhance customer satisfaction.

4. Training Process Model

II. Developing & Conducting Training

I. Needs Assessment

III. Evaluating Training

I. Needs Assessment 1. Organizational Level

2. Job Level 3. Individual Level

1. Organizational Level

Sales and operating plans. Productivity measures. Technology change. Organizational restructuring. Change in workforce.

2. Job Level
Job and task analysis. Identify KSAs. Review procedural and technical manuals.

Design Training Program

3. Individual Level
Determine who needs training and what kind.

Tests. Prior training and experience. Performance review. Career assessment.

II. Developing and Conducting Training

1. Determine location and who will conduct the training.
o

Onsite facilities vs. offsite. Inside training staff vs. outside vendors.
o

2. Develop training curricula.

Based on job/task analysis and individual needs.

3. Select training methods.

o o

Considering learning principles. Consider appropriateness and cost.

III. Evaluating Training Effectiveness 1. Four levels of training effectiveness. (See Figure 8.10) 2. Four evaluation designs.
3. ROI Return On Investment (See Figures 8.11 and 8.12).

Types of Evaluation Designs

Train Measure

Post Test Only. Cannot tell if there is a change in knowledge or skill. Measure Train Measure

Pre-test with Post-test. Detects a change, but cannot tell if training was responsible.

Types of Evaluation Designs

Measure 1 Measure 2 Measure Measure 3 Measure 4

Train

Measure 6

Measure 5

Multiple Baseline Design: Compares trend in performance Before and After training. A significant change in the performance trend after the training indicates the possibility of a training effect.

Types of Evaluation Designs

Measure
Measure

Train
No Train

Measure

Measure

Scientific Method: Training Group and Control Group. Compare performance of Training Group and Control Group after training. If Training Group has higher performance, it can be attributed to a training effect.

5. Learning Principles

Readiness

Practice

Feedback

Transfer

I. Readiness
1. Assess trainee capability.
2. Assess interest and perceived relevance. 3. Enhance trainee motivation.

1. Assess trainee capability i.e., ability and current level of knowledge and skill in order to insure success. Tests. Work sampling. Performance appraisals.

2. Assess trainee interest and perceived relevance of training. Employee surveys.

Career development programs. Performance appraisals.

3. Insure motivation to learn through control of Expectancy Theory elements.

Effort = E I V
E-Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to success (i.e., learning). I-Instrumentality is the belief that success (i.e., learning) will lead to rewards. V-Valence is the value placed on rewards by the individual.

Increasing Expectancy

Match training design to trainee capability. Enhance self-efficacy role modeling, encouragement, inactive mastery, etc.

Increasing Instrumentality

Indicate the link between training and (a) job success and (b) rewards security, salary, promotions, etc.

Increasing Valence
Valence (value of rewards) is largely an individual matter based on ones personality and past experiences. However, some studies have indicated that over the long-run, employees may come to value rewards that are consistently provided by the employer. Bonuses, Promotions, Peer Relations, etc.

II. Conditions of Practice

1. Meaningfulness. 2. Active vs. Passive. 3. Individual Differences.

1. Meaningfulness

Refers to the characteristics of instructional concepts and tasks as being (a) comprehendible and (b) relevant to ones past experiences (i.e., familiarity).

Increasing Meaningfulness
1. Present concepts by using examples and illustrations that are related to the end use and trainee past experiences. Use multiple methods to enhance trainee attention.

2. Parts vs. Whole - Subdividing complex concepts and tasks into components and treating interrelated concepts and tasks as a whole. 3. Distributed vs. Massed - The more complex and extensive the learning task, the more time and repetition that will be needed.

2. Active vs.Passive
Allowing trainees to progress from covert responses to concepts and tasks (i.e., mental imaging) to overt responses (i.e., active practice) allows one to develop the proprioceptive cues necessary to react spontaneously to real life events. Active practice is particularly important for physical tasks and interpersonal communication.

3. Individual Differences
Studies of learning indicate that different individuals have different learning curves i.e., advance at different speeds and use different learning styles.

Implications of individuals differences to training: Use a variety of training methods. Provide feedback and encouragement at appropriate times.

III. Feedback

1. Information vs. Reinforcement. 2. Continuous vs. Variable. 3. External vs. Learner Controlled.

1. Information vs. Reinforcement

Information Refers to critique of learning performance, such as test results, observations of performance, coaching, etc.

Reinforcement Refers to rewards, punishment, or negative reinforcement. (Such as praise, responsibility, salary increase, job security, promotion, etc.)

2. Continuous vs. Variable

Continuous It is important to provide relatively continuous feedback early in learning, to increase self-efficacy and motivation. Variable It is best to provide intermittent feedback as learners master concepts and tasks.(Feedback
begins to be internally generated).

3. External vs. Learner Controlled

External Feedback provided by instructors or supervisors - is important in early stages of the learning process.

Learner Controlled Feedback resulting from active practice (I.e. task performance) such as computer-based instruction, simulators, or on-the-job.

IV. Transfer
Transfer refers to the trainees application of knowledge and skills gained in training on the job. It is affected by:

Relevance and effectiveness of the training readiness, practice, and feedback principles. Follow-up instruction and support. Reinforcement to use new knowledge and skills.

6. Training Methods
Classroom
Computer Assisted Instruction

Video CAI with Video

Simulation

On-the-Job

1. Classroom Instruction
PROS

CONS

Efficient dissemination of large volume of information. Effective in explaining concepts, theories, and principles. Provides opportunity for discussion.

Learner does not control pace or content Does not consider individual differences. Limited practice. Limited feedback. Limited transfer to job.

2. Video and Film

PROS

CONS

Provides realism. Adds interest. Allows scheduling flexibility. Allows exposure to hazardous events. Allows distribution to multiple sites.

Does not consider individual differences. Limited practice. Limited feedback. Limited transfer to job.

3. Computer Assisted Instruction

PROS

CONS

Efficient instruction. Considers individual differences. Allows scheduling flexibility. Allows active practice for some tasks. Allows learner control. Provides immediate feedback to tasks.

Limited in presenting theories and principles. Limited discussion. Transfer depends on particular job. (Good for computer work.) High development cost (40-60 hours per hour of instruction at $100-$300 per hour.)

4. Computer Assisted Instruction with Video

PROS

CONS

Same as basic CAI. Adds realism. Adds interest. Allows exposure to hazardous events.

Same as basic CAI. Adds additional cost.

$50,000-$150,000 per hour of instruction due to: * Script writers * Production specialists * Camera crews

5. Simulation/Vestibule

PROS Provides realism. Allows active practice. Provides immediate feedback. Allows exposure to hazardous events. High transfer to job. No job interference. Lowers trainee stress.

CONS

Cannot cover all job aspects. Limited number of trainees. Can be very expensive (for example, aircraft simulators and virtual reality simulators).

6. On-The-Job Training
PROS

CONS

Provides realism. Allows active practice. Provides immediate feedback. High motivation. High transfer to job. Lowers training cost.

Disruptions to operations. May damage equipment. Inconsistent across departments. Inadequate focus on underlying principles. Lack of systematic feedback. Transfer of improper procedures. Trainee stress.