STATISTICS

METHODS OF RESEARCH

GROUP 6
DEFINITION OF STATISTICS &
NEED OF STATISTIC IN
RESEARCH
DATA CHARACTERIZATION
& CLASSIFICATION
Data Characterization
Data characterization is a summarization of the general characteristics or features of a target
class of data (target class).
The data corresponding to the user-specified class are typically collected by a query.
The output of data characterization can be presented in various forms.
Examples include pie charts, bar charts, curves, multidimensional data cubes, and
multidimensional tables, including crosstabs. The resulting descriptions can also be presented
as generalized relations or in rule form (called characteristic rules).
Data Classification
What is data classification?
● Data classification is the process of organizing data into categories that make it easy to retrieve,
sort and store for future use.
● It is the process of arranging data into homogeneous groups according to their common
characteristics.
● Heterogeneous data is divided into separate homogeneous classes. Ex. Separating data on the
basis of public, internal and confidential
● Systematic classification of data helps organizations manipulate, track and analyze individual
pieces of data. Data professionals often have a specific goal when categorizing data. The goal
affects the approach they take and classification levels they use.
◦Confidentiality
◦Data Integrity
◦Data Availability
Data Classification OBJECTIVES
a.Simplification
b.Improves Utility
c.Brings out Individuality
d.Aids Comparison
e.Increase Reliability
f.Make it Attractive
g.Consolidation
Types of Data Classification
GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION
§Classification of data is according to location/ geographical area or region

Example:
Palay Production by Region
in the Philippines 2019-2020
In metric tons

Source: psa.gov.ph
Types of Data Classification
Example: Philippine GDP Growth Rate
§CHRONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Data are classified on the basis of time
of existence, such as years, months,
weeks, days etc. Data are arranged
either in ascending or descending order.
It is also known as Temporal
Classification

Source: datacommons.org
Types of Data Classification
§QUALITATIVE CLASSIFICATION TWO TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA:
● Simple Classification
Classification of data is according to
Data is qualified into two groups.
characteristics and attributes or quality
Ex. Educational qualification: educated &
such as gender, hair colour, literacy,
uneducated.
intelligence, religion etc.
● Manifold Classification
The attribute under study cannot be Data is classified on the basis of two or
measured and can only be discovered more than two qualities
whether it is present or missing in the Ex. Population classified on the
sections of study. basis of sex and religion
Types of Data Classification
§ QUANTITATIVE CLASSIFICATION
A quantitative type of variable can be calculated, measured and/or operated with; it presents particular
information on a numerical scale. Ex. Temperature, volume, height, income, results of students or any
type of computation or numerical value.
Also recognized as classification by variables.
2 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA:

1.Discrete Frequency Distribution (Ungrouped frequency distribution)

- a table that shows each number and the number of times it appears in a list (frequency)
2.Continuous Frequency Distribution (Grouped frequency distribution)
- is a series in which the data are classified into different class intervals without gaps and their
respective frequencies are assigned as per the class intervals and class width.
Sample
Discrete Frequency Distribution Continuous Frequency Distribution
TWO ELEMENTS
Variable - refers to the characteristic that varies in magnitude or quantity. E.g. weight of the
students. A variable may be discrete or continuous.

◦A. Discrete Variable –A discrete variable can take only certain specific values that are whole
numbers (integers). E.g. Number of children in a family or Number of class rooms in a school.
◦B. Continuous Variable - A Continuous variable can take any numerical value within a specific
interval. Example: the average weight of a particular class student is between 60 and 80 kgs.

Frequency - refers to the number of times each variable gets repeated.

For example there are 50 students having weight of 60 kgs. Here 50 students is the frequency.
◦Frequency distribution - refers to data classified on the basis of some variable that can be
measured such as prices, weight, height, wages etc.
QUALITATIVE VS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
PARAMETRIC VS NON-
PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Parametric Statistics
● It is based on assumptions about the distribution of population from which the sample was taken.
The most common assumption is that data is distributed normally. Although parametric statistics
are considered more powerful than nonparametric statistics, they are not always applicable for the
analysis of the significance of differences. The reason is that the assumptions on which they are
based are not always met.

● It relies on the assumptions about the shape of the distribution in the underlying population and
about the form or parameters of the assumed distribution.
Nonparametric Statistics
● It is not based on assumptions, that is, the data can be collected from a sample that does not follow
a specific distribution. The sample data is not based on numbers but on other criteria, such as
ranking or commonness. As they involve weaker assumptions, they are less powerful than the
parametric tests and require larger samples to yield the same level of significance.
Nonparametric tests are used with nominal and ordinal data. Examples are:
● Chi-square test- is useful for determining if a statistically significant relationship exists between
two variables, for example, age and frequency of library use.
● Spearman rank order correlation- a non-parametric correlation coefficient that can be calculated for
ranked or ordinal level data.
 Parametric vs Nonparametric
Parametric Nonparametric
Population is well-known No information about the population
available
Assumptions made about the population No assumptions made about the
population
Sample data based on distribution Arbitrary sample data
Applicable for continuous variables Applicable for continuous and discrete
variables
More powerful Less powerful
DESCRIPTIVE FROM
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
- is a term given to the analysis of data that helps to describe, show and summarize data in a
meaningful way.

it is very important to present our raw data in effective and meaningful way using numerical
calculations or tables.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
COMMON FORMS OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:
1. Summary Statistics - these are statistics that summarize the data using a single number.
a. measures of tendency - these numbers describe where the center of a dataset is located.
Examples:
Mean - which is the arithmetic average
Median - is the center number in the data set.
Mode - the number that occurs the most frequently in a dataset.
b. Measures of dispersion - these numbers describe how spread out the values are in the dataset.
Examples:
Range -
Standard deviation
Variance
Examples:
Mean - which is the arithmetic average
Median - is the center number in the data set.
Mode - the number that occurs the most frequently in a dataset.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
COMMON FORMS OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:

1. Summary Statistics - these are statistics that summarize the data using a single number.
measures of tendency - these numbers describe where the center of a dataset is located.
Examples:
Mean - which is the arithmetic average
Median - is the center number in the data set.
Mode - the number that occurs the most frequently in a dataset.
Measures of dispersion - these numbers describe how spread out the values are in the dataset.
Examples:
Range -
Standard deviation
Variance
Examples:
Mean - which is the arithmetic average
Median - is the center number in the data set.
Mode - the number that occurs the most frequently in a dataset.
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
COMMON FORMS OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:

2. Graphs - helps us visualize data

Examples:
boxplot
histograms
stem-and-leaf plots

3. Tables - helps us understand how data is distributed.

Example:
Frequency table
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Predictions are made by taking any group of data in which you are interested. It can be defined as a
random sample of data taken from a population to describe and make inferences about the
population.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
COMMON FORMS ARE:
Hypothesis tests - used to determine if the population you’re measuring hasa higher value than
another data point in your analysis. It can also conclude if population vary, which is centered on
the results you earned from multiple experiments.

Confidence intervals - helps in estimating the parameters of a population

Regression Analysis - used to quantify how one variable will change with respect to another
variable.
STATISTICAL
TECHNIQUES USED
TO TREAT RESEARCH DATA
What is statistical analysis?
- It involves analyzing collected data with the aid of
statistical tool to answer the research problem. Thus, this
gives meaning to the data collected.
Common Statistical Techniques
1. Measure of Central Tendency – The data describes the average or summary of the
data using mean, median or mode.
2. Parametric Test – This test assures that the data are on quantitative (numerical)
scale, with a normal distribution of the underlying population.
· T-test – This is used to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference
between the means of the two groups. Unfortunately, this test cannot be used
for comparison of three or more groups.
· Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – This is used to test if there is any
significant difference between the means of two or more groups.
3. Non-parametric Test – This statistical technique is used to analyze ordinal and categorical
data which are set in order to scale form.

Common example of this technique are:

· Mann-Whitney test – It is used to test the null hypothesis that two samples
have the same median or, alternatively, whether observations in one sample tend
to be larger than observations in the other.
· Kruskal-Wallis Test – This is a non-parametric test to analyze the variance – in
ordinal data.
- It analyzes if there is any difference in the median values of three or more
independent samples.
- The data values are ranked in an increasing order, and the rank sums
calculated followed by calculation of the test statistic.
· Friedman Test – This is a non-parametric test for testing the difference between
several related samples.
· Spearman Rank Test – this test the strength of a link between two sets of
categorical data variables.
4. Correlation Statistics – This is a statistical technique that can show whether and how
strongly pairs of variables are related.

· Pearson’s Correlation – This tests the statistical relationship, or association,

between two continuous variables.
5. Regression Analysis – This is a powerful statistical method that allows you to examine the
relationship between two or more variables of interest.
- This examines the influence of one or more independent variables on a
dependent variable.
Steps in Conducting Statistical Analysis

1. You need to identify your research problem.

2. You describe the nature of data to be analyze based on your research problem.
3. You use your research frameworks especially the empirical model to summarize
understanding of how the data relates with each other.
4. Prove or disprove the validity of the model using your hypothesis.
5. Employ applicable statistical techniques to run scenarios what will help you
guide future actions and can answer your research problem.
FOUR BASIC
CRITERIA IN
CHOOSING A TEST
1.Reliability
- Consis
2. Validity
3.Objectivity
4.Usability
MEASURES FOR
PARAMETRIC AND
NON-PARAMETRIC DATA
Dependent Samples
•The measured values are in pairs
•The pairs results from repeated measurement on
the same individual/group
Some examples are t-test dependent
ANOVA with repeated measure
Independent Samples
•Values come from 2 or more different groups
•Nothing to do with the other group
Some examples are t-test independent
ANOVA without repeated
 Measures for Parametric and Non-
Parametric Data
Classification Parametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests

One Sample Simple t-Test Mann-Whitney Test

Two Dependent Paired Samples t-Test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank
Test
Two Independent One-Way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis Test
samples
More than two Two-Way ANOVA Friedman
independent samples
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE,
DEPENDENT VARIABLE,
MODERATOR VARIABLE,
CONTROL VARIABLE,
INTERVENING VARIABLE
Variable in research study?

-A variable in a research study is something or

someone you are trying to measure.
- Variable in a research study may be dependent or
independent, with both serving an important
purpose in a study because both can affect the
study’s result.
Independent variable
-An independent variable is one that is not affected by changes
to other variables in a research study.
-while independent variable in a may change during a study,
these changes often occur because of the actions of the
researchers, or from outside factors unrelated to other variables
within the study.
Dependent variables
-a dependent variable is one that changes because of
changes to another variables in a research study.
-the result or values of the variable depend on the
results or values of different variable.
Identifying independent and dependent
variables
•Ask if you control the variable
•Ask if the variable changes
•Identify through examination
Moderator variable
- is an explanatory variable that alters the strength or
direction of the relationship between two other
variables.
Control variable
-is a variable that remain constant throughout the
experiment.
-these variables have great importance in research,
as the accuracy of the experiment is completely
based on them.
Intervening Variable
-is a variable that affects the relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.
-often this type of variable can appear when researchers are
studying the relationship between two variables and don’t
realize that another variable is actually intervening in the
relationship.
INPUT, PROCESS AND
OUTPUT
HOW HYPOTHESIS ARE
CLASSIFIED
What is a Hypothesis?
-a statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by
the research
-is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of
argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true.
-is a “thesis statement”
How is Hypothesis(es) classified?
The criteria of the research problem in the form of null
hypothesis and alternative hypothesis should be expressed as a
relationship between two or more variables. The criteria is that
the statements should be the one that expresses the
relationship between the two or more measurable variables. The
null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis should carry clear
implications for testing and stating relations.
Null Hypothesis
-generally denoted as H0
-it states the exact opposite of what an investigator or an
experimenter predicts or expects
-it defines the statement which states that there is no exact or
actual relationship between the variables
 How do you write a Null
Hypothesis for a research?
1. Null Hypothesis can be statements of equality
Example: There is no difference in the average score of fifth
graders from Josefa Carino Elementary School and the average
score of fifth graders from Baguio Central School on the Math
test.
How do you write a Null Hypothesis for a
research?
2. Null Hypothesis can be statements of no relationship
Example: There is no relationship between personality type and
job success.

3. Null Hypothesis can be statements of no causal relationship

Example: The social class of consumers have no impact on
alcoholic beverage consumption.
 Alternative Hypothesis
-generally denoted as H1
-a statement that suggests or advises a potential result or an
outcome that an investigator or the researcher may expect
-categorized into two categories:
1. Directional Alternative Hypothesis
2. Non-directional Alternative Hypothesis
Directional Alternative
Hypothesis
-explains the direction of the expected findings
-developed to examine the relationship among the variables
rather than a comparison between the groups
-makes researcher’s expectation clear
-allows precise statistical testing
Directional Alternative Hypothesis
Example:
High quality of nursing education will lead to high quality of
nursing practice skills.
Children with high IQ will exhibit more anxiety than children
with low IQ.
Cardiac patients who receive support from former patients have
less anxiety and higher self-efficacy than other patients.
Non-directional Alternative
Hypothesis
-no definite direction of the expected findings being specified
-independent variable will have an effect on the dependent
variable
-it simply states that there will be a difference between the two
groups
Non-directional Alternative
Hypothesis
Example:
There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.
There will be a difference in adaptability of fathers and mothers
towards rearing of their children.
There is a difference in the anxiety level of the children of high
IQ and those of low IQ.