LANGUAGE TEACHING

• Traditional Approaches
• (1)Grammar- Translation Method
• (2) The Direct Method
• (3) The Audio-Lingual Method
• Modern Approaches
• (1)Natural Approach
• (2) The Communicative Approach(Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
• (3) The Silent Way
• (4) Suggestopedia/Desuggestopedia
• (5)Community Language learning(counseling Learning)
• (6)Task-based Instruction/Approach
• (7) Total physical response Method
• (8)The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
• (9) The Eclectic Approach
• Postmethod
 Definitions

Definition of Acquisition , Learning,

approach, method, technique,
syllabus and curriculum
 Curriculum
• In education, a curriculum (/kəˈrɪkjᵿləm/; plural: curricula /kəˈrɪkjᵿlə/
 or curriculums) is broadly defined as the totality of student experiments that
occur in the educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned
sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the
educator's or school's instructional goals. A curriculum is a set of learning goals
articulated across grades that outline the intended content and process goals at
particular points in time throughout the school program. [3] Curriculum may
incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content,
materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational
objectives. Curriculum is split into several categories, the explicit, the implicit
(including the hidden), the excluded and the extra-curricular.
• Curricula may be tightly standardized, or may include a high level of instructor or
learner autonomy. Many countries have national curricula in primary and 
secondary education, such as the United Kingdom's National Curriculum.
 Curriculum
• Curriculum comes from the Latin word for
"running course," or "career," but when we
talk about curriculum it's always about school.
If you go to a school with a Liberal Arts
curriculum, you'll get an education in the
humanities with some science, but if you go to
a technical school with a hard-core
astrophysics curriculum, you probably won't
have to take any courses on poetry.
 Syllabus
• The noun syllabus comes from the Late Latin word syllabus, meaning
“list.” When you teach a class you may be required to make an
outline of what you will expect the students to do in your class. That’s
the syllabus. A syllabus could vaguely mention the topics that will be
covered each week or it can be a detailed synopsis of every reading
assignment, homework expectation, and exam question. Syllabus
style is the teacher’s choice. The syllabus is a "contract between
faculty members and their students, designed to answer students'
questions about a course, as well as inform them about what will
happen should they fail to meet course expectations." [3] It is also a
"vehicle for expressing accountability and commitment" . Over time,
the notion of a syllabus as a contract has grown more literal but is not
in fact an enforceable contract.
 Acquisition
• Language acquisition is the process by which humans
acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend
language, as well as to produce and
use words and sentences to communicate. Language
acquisition is one of the quintessential human
traits, because non-humans do not communicate by using
language. Language acquisition usually refers to first-
language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of
their native language. This is distinguished from second-
language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in
both children and adults) of additional languages.
 Learning
• Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing,
existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may
involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to
learn is possessed by humans, animals, plants and some machines.
Progress over time tends to follow a learning curve. It does not
happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by previous
knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather
than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning
produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are
relatively permanent.[2]
• Human learning may occur as part of education, 
personal development, schooling, or training. It may be goal-oriented
 and may be aided by motivation.
Definition of Approach, Method &Technique

The difference between technique , method and

approach can be explained as follows:
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions
dealing with the nature of language teaching
and learning. An approach is axiomatic. 1t describes the
nature of the subject matter
to be taught. ..when we use the term approach we
mean that an idea or theory is being applied: that
whatever the teacher does , certain theoretical
principles are always borne in mind.
 Approach Cont.
• An approach is a set of assumptions about the nature of language and
language learning, but does not involve procedure or provide any details
about how such assumptions should be implemented into the classroom
setting. Such can be related to second language acquisition theory.
There are three principal "approaches":
• The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related
elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar).
• The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a
certain function, such as requesting something.
• The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and
maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts,
negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This
approach has been fairly dominant since the 1980s.
 Method
Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of
language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of
which is based upon, the selected approach. A method is a
plan for presenting the language material to be learned, and
should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an
approach to be translated into a method, an instructional
system must be designed considering the objectives of the
teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected and
organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of
students, and the roles of teachers.
Like an approach a method may either be structural, functional or
interactive:
 Method Cont.
• Examples of structural methods are grammar translation and the 
audio-lingual method.
• Examples of functional methods include the oral approach /
situational language teaching.
• Examples of interactive methods include the direct method, the
series method, communicative language teaching, 
language immersion, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, the Natural
Approach, Total Physical Response, Teaching Proficiency through
Reading and Storytelling.
An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural . It consists of a
number of techniques. Within one approach, there can be many
methods . ..
A technique is an implementation that actually takes
place in a classroom. A technique (or strategy) is a very
specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to
accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from
the controlling method, and less directly, from the
approach.
Techniques must be consistent with a method, and
therefore in harmony with an approach as well. (Anthony
1963:63-7). A technique then is a one single procedure.
Approach , Method & Technique Hierarchical System

Approach

Method 1 Method 2

Techniqu Techniqu
eA eB Technique C
 Grammar-Translation Method
Main Features
• Used in teaching Classical languages such as Latin and Greek
• Help students to read and appreciate foreign language literature
• Translate vocabulary and grammar into native language
• Studying L2 grammar familiarize students with their L1.
The grammar translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages
 derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching 
Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn 
grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences
between the target language and the native language. Advanced students
may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two
main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the
source language, and to further students’ general intellectual development.
 History of GTM
• At first it was believed that teaching modern languages
was not useful for the development of mental discipline
and thus they were left out of the curriculum. When
modern languages did begin to appear in school
curricula in the 19th century, teachers taught them with
the same grammar-translation method as was used for
classical Latin and Greek. As a result, textbooks were
essentially copied for the modern language classroom.
In the United States of America, the basic foundations of
this method were used in most high school and college
foreign language classrooms
 Principles and goals of GTM

• There are two main goals to grammar-translation classes.

One is to develop students’ reading ability to a level
where they can read literature in the target language. [2]
 The other is to develop students’ general mental
discipline. The users of foreign language wanted simply
to note things of their interest in the literature of foreign
languages. Therefore, this method focuses on reading
and writing and has developed techniques which
facilitate more or less the learning of reading and writing
only. As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked.
 Method of GTM
• Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in the students’ 
native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively; students
learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing
grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target
language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being
translated than to their content. When students reach more
advanced levels of achievement, they may translate entire texts
from the target language. Tests often consist of the translation of
classical texts.
• There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little
attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects
 of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and that is only in the
context of translation.
 Materials for GTM
• The classroom materials for the grammar-translation method
depend on the textbook. Textbooks in the 19th century
attempted to codify the grammar of the target language into
discrete rules for students to learn and memorize. A chapter in a
typical grammar-translation textbook would begin with a
bilingual vocabulary list, after which there would be grammar
rules for students to study, and sentences for them to translate. [1]
 Some typical sentences from 19th-century textbooks are as
follows:
• The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of the hen.

• My sons have bought the mirrors of the Duke.

• The cat of my aunt is more treacherous than the dog of your

 Reception of GTM
• The method by definition has a very limited scope. Because
speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing
from the curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or
even letter writing in the target language.
• According to Richards and Rodgers, the grammar-translation has
been rejected as a legitimate language teaching method by
modern scholars:
• Though it may be true to say that the Grammar-Translation
Method is still widely practiced, it has no advocates. It is a
method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that
offers a rationale or justification for it or that attempts to relate it
to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory.
 Influence of GTM
• The grammar-translation method was the standard way languages were
taught in schools from the 17th to the 19th century.
• Later, theorists  began to talk about what a new kind of foreign language
instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar translation was
missing. They supported teaching the language, not about the language,
and teaching in the target language, emphasizing speech as well as text.
Through grammar translation, students lacked an active role in the
classroom, often correcting their own work and strictly following the
textbook.
• Despite all of these drawbacks, the grammar-translation method is still the
most used method all over the world in language teaching. This is not
surprising as most language proficiency books and tests are in the format
of grammar-translation method; and henceforth the use of the method
continues
 The Direct Method
• It was enforced at the beginning of the 20 th century
• Students’ own languages were banished and every thing was to be
done through the language of instruction
• Translation was considered taboo
• Thus it established a concept of second language acquisition very
different from Grammar-translation method
• Most recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of instruction
became learning how to use a foreign language to communicate.
• It got its name from the fact that meaning is to be directly connected
with the target language without translation.
• It became popular because GTM was not very effective in preparing
students to use the language communicatively.
 Principles of The Direct Method
• The goals of the teachers who use the Direct Method is to make
students learn how to communicate in the target language.
• The role of the teacher is to direct students’ activities. The role of
students is less passive than in the GTM. Both teacher and students work
as partners in the teaching/ learning process.
• Interaction between students and teacher is teacher- directed. Students
converse with each other as well.
• Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar and oral communication is seen
as basic. Meaning is demonstrated through realia, pictures and
pantomime.
• Language is primarily spoken not written.
• The teacher tries to get students to self-correct whenever possible.
Syllabus is based on situations.
 The Audio-Lingual Method
• Like the direct method, and has a role
different from that of the Grammar-
Translation Method
• Developed in USA DURING World War 2
• Based on behavioral psychology
• Some principles are similar to Direct Method
• But many are different, having been based on
concepts of behaviorism and descriptivism
 Audio-lingual Method Cont.
• The emergence of the Audio-lingual Method resulted from the
increased attention given to foreign language teaching in the United
States .Toward the end of the 1950s , the need for a radical change and
rethinking of foreign language teaching methodology was prompted
by the launching of the first Russian satellite in 1957. The U.S .
Government acknowledged the need for a more intensive effort to
teach foreign languages in order to prevent Americans from becoming
isolated from scientific advances made
by other countries.

• The National Defense Education Act (1958), among other measures,

provided funds for the study and analysis of modern Ianguages for the
development of teaching materials, and for the training of teachers.
 Audio-lingual Method Cont.
• The method was widely adopted for teaching foreign
languages in North American colleges and universities.
• It provided the methodological foundation for materials
for the teaching of foreign languages at college and
university level in the United States and Canada, and its
principles formed the basis of such widely used series .
• Although the method began to fall from favor in the late
sixties , Audiolingualism and materials based on
audiolingual principles continue to be widely used today.
 Audio-lingual Method Cont.
• The theory of language underlying Audio-lingualism was
derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the
1950s - a view that came to be known as structural
linguistics. Linguistics had emerged as a flourishing academic
discipline in the 1950s, and the structural theory of language
constituted its backbone. An important tenet of structural
linguistics was that the primary medium of language is oral:
Speech is language. Since many languages do not have a
written form and we learn to speak before we learn to read
or write, it was argued that language is "primarily what is
spoken and only secondarily what is written" (Brooks 1964).
 Audio-lingualism is Based on Behaviorist
Theory of Learning
• Foreign language learning is basically a process of
mechanical habit formation. Good habits are
formed by giving correct responses rather than by
making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and
performing pattern drills the chances of producing
mistakes are minimized.
• Language is verbal behavior - that is, the automatic
production and comprehension of utterances - and
can be learned by inducing the students to do
likewise.
According to the Principles of the Audio-
ligual Method the meanings that the words
of a language have for the native speaker
can be learned only in a linguistic and
cultural context and not in isolation.
Teaching a language thus involves teaching
aspects of the cultural system of the people
who speak the language (Rivers 1964: 19-
22).
 Drills in the Audio-lingual Method
• Drills and pattern practice are typical (Richards, J.C. et-al.
1986):
• Repetition: the student repeats an utterance as soon as
he hears it.
• Inflection: one word in a sentence appears in another
form when repeated.
• Replacement: one word is replaced by another.
• Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance.
 Examples of Drills
• Inflection: Teacher: I ate the sandwich. Student: I ate the sandwiches.
Replacement: Teacher: He bought the car for half-price. Student: He
bought it for half-price.
Restatement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often. Student: Don't smoke so
often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be
incorporated into one practice session:
“Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat
Students: There's a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There's a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There's a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There's a book on the chair
 Advantages of Audio-lingual Method
• Listening and speaking skills are emphasized and,
especially the former, rigorously developed.
• The use of visual aids is effective in vocabulary
teaching.
• The method is just as functional and easy to execute
for larger groups.
• Correct pronunciation and structure are emphasized
and acquired.
• It is grounded on a solid theory of language learning.
 Disadvantages
• The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many
scholars have proved its weakness.
• It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence.
• Only language form is considered while meaning is neglected.
• Equal importance is not given to all four skills.
• It is a teacher-dominated method.
• It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice,
drilling, and memorization over functional learning and organic
usage.
• The learner is in a passive role; the learner has little control over
their learning
 Gattegno’s Silent Way

• It shares principles with Cognitive Code Approach and TG linguists

• Teacher’s role is a subordinate to that of the learner
• Language is not a product of habit- formation but engaged in formulating
hypotheses
• Students develop their own inner criteria for correctness independent
from the teacher
• Teacher plays the role of a technician who repairs flaws and damage
• The role of students is to make use of what they know
• The teacher works with students and the students work with the language
• For most students-teacher interaction the teacher is silent
• Student-student interaction is desirable
 Silent Way Continued
• The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created
by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence
as a teaching technique. Gattegno introduced the
method in 1963, in his book Teaching Foreign
Languages in Schools: The Silent Way.[1] Gattegno was
critical of mainstream language education at the time,
and he based the method on his general theories of
education rather than on existing language pedagogy. It
is usually regarded as an "alternative" language-
teaching method  as Richards groups it.
 The Silent Way Cont.
The method emphasizes learner autonomy and active student participation.

It is named after the teacher’s silence.

Silence is used as a tool to achieve this goal; the teacher uses a mixture of
silence and gestures to focus students' attention, to elicit responses from
them, and to encourage them to correct their own errors.

Pronunciation is seen as fundamental to the method, with a great deal of

time spent on it each lesson.
The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus and concentrates on teaching a
small number of functional and versatile words.

Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and the language is usually
practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation,
and the teacher may never set a formal test.
 Rods and Charts in the Silent Way
• One of the hallmarks of the Silent Way is the use of 
Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything from
introducing simple commands ("Take two red rods and give
them to her.") to representing objects such as clocks and
utensils. The method also draws on color associations to
help teach pronunciation; there is a sound-color chart which
is used to teach the language sounds, colored word charts
which are used for work on sentences, and colored Fidel
charts which are used to teach spelling. While the Silent Way
is not widely used in its original form, its ideas have been
influential, especially in the teaching of pronunciation.
 Process of the Silent Way
Teaching techniques
• As the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in
the Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90
percent or more of the talking. Being silent moves the
focus of the classroom from the teacher to the
students, and can encourage cooperation among them. It
also frees the teacher to observe the class. Silence can be
used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers
can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give
them time to self-correct; they can also help students with
their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing,
and by using certain hand gestures. When teachers do
speak, they tend to say things only once so that students
learn to focus their attention on them.
 Techniques Cont.
• A Silent Way classroom also makes
extensive use of peer correction.
Students are encouraged to help their
classmates when they have trouble with
any particular feature of the language.
This help should be made in a cooperative
fashion, not a competitive one. One of the
teacher's tasks is to monitor these
interactions, so that they are helpful and
do not interfere with students' learning.
 Reception and influence

As the year 2000 approached, the Silent Way was only used

by a small number of teachers. These teachers often work in

situations where accuracy or speed of learning is important.

Their working conditions may also be challenging, for example

working with illiterate refugees. However, the ideas behind

the Silent Way continue to be influential, particularly in the

area of teaching pronunciation.

 Suggestopedia by Georgi Lozanov
• Like Gattegno, Lozanov believes that learning can
occur at a much faster rate than in traditional
approaches
• Lozanov declares that we set up psychological barriers
to learning and we should surmount these barriers
through desuggestions i.e.,dessugestopedia
• The more confident the students feel the better they
learn
• Thus learning is facilitated in a relaxed comfortable
environment
 Suggestopedia Cont.
• Music ,art and drama enable suggestions to
reach the subconscious and should be
integrated into the learning process
• Activating students imagination will aid learning
• Students interact with each other and their
feeling is highly considered
• Indirect suggestions are activated through
music and direct ones through the teacher
 Suggestopedia Cont.
The original form of Suggestopedia
presented by Lozanov made use of extended
dialogues about people from the students'
country visiting a country that uses the target
language, often several pages in length,
accompanied by vocabulary lists and
observations on grammatical points. Typically
these dialogues would be read aloud to the
students and were accompanied by music
 Suggetopedia Cont.
The teacher’s attitude and behavior in the classroom is
one of the key elements which ensures the success of a
suggestopedic session. He or she has to establish good
human relations in the class so that students would help
and praise one another. “The teacher in a suggestopedic
course not only radiates effective suggestive stimuli, but
also coordinates environmental suggestive stimuli in a
positive way for students to learn. One of Suggestopedia's
unique goals is to release learners' minds from the
existing framework of the <social-suggestive norms>
(Lozanov, 1978. p. 252)”.
 Suggestopedia Cont.
In order to stimulate the creativity of the learners
Suggestopedia uses almost all the categories of art such
as music, visual arts, and stage art. The suggestopedic
teachers use music as songs in the elaborations and as
classical background music in the concert sessions.
They hang colorfully made grammar posters among
other art posters in the classroom, and sometimes you
give the group drawing tasks. They move like actors in
the theater, use puppets like a show person, and read
the textbook like poets at their recital
 The Communicative Approach
“Communicative Language Teaching” (CLT)

• Wilkins(1972) set up the basis for developing

communicative syllabuses for language
teaching
• He expanded his ideas in a book called
“Notional Syllabus” 1976
• The terms Notional-functional approach and
Functional approach are also used
• Notions such as ( time, sequence, quantity,
location, frequency) and functions such
as(requests, denials, offers , complaints) are
 (CLT) Cont.
used to describe types of meaning within a social context
- Language learning is learning to communicate
- Meaning becomes clear through interaction between listener-
speaker and reader-writer
- Using authentic language in real context
- Target language is used as a vehicle for classroom
communication
- Effective communication is sought
- Comprehensible pronunciation is sought
- Reading and writing may start from the first day
- Translation may be used where necessary
 Background of (CLT) .
• By the end of the sixties it was clear that the
situational approach., . had run its course. There
was no future in continuing to pursue the chimera
of predicting language on the basis of situational
events. What was required was a closer study of
the language itself and a return to the traditional
concept that utterances carried meaning in
themselves and expressed the meanings and
intentions of the speakers and writers who created
them. (Howatt 1984: 280)
 CLT Background
This was partly a response to the sorts of criticisms
the prominent American linguist Noam Chomsky
had leveled at structural linguistic theory in his
now classic book Syntactic Structures (1957).
Chomsky had demonstrated that the current
standard structural theories of language were
incapable of accounting for the fundamental
characteristics of language - the creativity and
uniqueness of individual sentences.
 CLT Cont.
So Wilkins(1972), proposed a functional or
communicative definition of language that could serve
as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for
language teaching. Wilkins's contribution was an
analysis of the communicative meanings that a
language learner needs to understand and express.
Rather than describe the core of language through
traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, Wilkins
attempted to demonstrate the systems of meanings that
lay behind the communicative uses of language.
Comparison Between The Audio-Lingual Method and the
Communicative Language Teaching
Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language Teaching
1. Attends to structure and form 1. Meaning is paramount.
more than meaning.
2. Demands memorization of 2. Dialogs, if used, center around
structure-based dialogs. communicative functions and are not
normally memorized.
3. Language items are not 3. Contextualization is a basic premise.
necessarily contextualized.
4. Language learning is learning 4. Language learning is learning to
structures, sounds, or words. communicate.
5. Mastery, or "over-learning" is 5. Effective communication is sought.
sought.
6. Drilling is a central technique. 6. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
7. Native-speaker-like 7. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
pronunciation is sought. 8. Any device which helps the learners
8. Grammatical explanation is is accepted - varying according to
avoided. their age, interest, etc.
Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language Teaching
9. Communicative activities only 9. Attempts to communicate may be
come after a long process of rigid encouraged from the very beginning.
drills and exercises.
10. The use of the student's native 10. Judicious use of native language is
language is forbidden. accepted where feasible.
11. Translation is forbidden at 11. Translation may be used where
early levels. students need or benefit from it.
12. Reading and writing are deferred 12. Reading and writing can start from
till speech is mastered. the first day, if desired.
13. The target linguistic system will 13. The target linguistic system will be
be learned through the overt teaching learned best through the process of
of the patterns of the system. struggling to communicate.
14. Linguistic competence is the 14. Communicative competence is the
desired goal. desired goal (i.e. the ability to use
the linguistic system effectively)
 The Natural Approach
• It was established in 1977 by the Spanish linguist
Tracy Terrell
• It is a modern term which is used to replace what
was traditionally called the Direct Method
• The principle is that an adult learner can repeat
the route to proficiency of the native speaking
child
• The idea is that learning can take place simply by
exposure to meaningful input
 Natural Approach Cont.
• There is a difference between the Natural Approach and the
Natural Method (Direct Method)
• Unlike the Natural Method , the Natural Approach places
less emphasis on monologues and repetition of drills and
formal questions and answers
• In the Natural Approach there is much emphasis on
exposure to language and a prolonged period of attention to
what language learners hear
• The Natural Approach is an example of a communicative
Approach and it rejects the Audio-Lingual method which
view grammar as a central component of language
 Natural Approach Cont.
• Terrell stressed the importance of vocabulary and he suggested
the view that a language is essentially its lexicon
• It is based on a theory of language which assumes that learning
can not lead to acquisition (Acquisition/Learning hypothesis)
• Acquisition is the natural process by which a child acquires his
mother tongue while learning needs formal teaching to occur
• The Natural Approach is for beginners and is designed to help
them become intermediates
• The communication goals are expressed in terms of situations,
topics and functions in a syllabus which is primarily designed to
meet the needs of students
Learners’ Roles in the Natural Approach
• Learners' roles are seen to change according to their stage of linguistic
development. Central to these changing roles are learner decisions on when to
speak, what to speak a bout, and what linguistic expressions to use in speaking.
• In the pre-production stage students " participate in the language activity
without having to respond in the target language" (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 76).
For example, students can act out physical commands, identify student
colleagues from teacher description, point to pictures, and so forth .
• In the early-production stage, students respond to either-or questions,
use single words and short phrases, fill in charts, and use fixed conversational
patterns (e.g., How are you? What's your name?) .
• In the speech-emergent phase, students involve themselves in role play
and games, contribute personal information and opinions, and participate
in group problem solving.
 Learners responsibilities in the Natural
Approach classroom:
• 1. Provide information about their specific goals so that
acquisition activities can focus on the topics and situations most
relevant to their needs,
• 2. Take an active role in ensuring comprehensible input. They
should learn and use conversational management techniques to
regulate input.
• 3. Decide when to start producing speech and when to upgrade
it.
• 4. Where learning exercises i.e.( grammar study) are to be a part
of the program, decide with the teacher the relative amount of
time to be devoted to them and perhaps even complete and
correct them independently.
 Community Language Learning)CLL)
(Counseling Learning)
• Community Language learning (CLL) is a name of a method developed by the
American psychologist Charles A. Curran.
• It is based on the Counseling learning theory to teach language.
• The role of the teacher is ‘the counselor=knower’ and the role of students
are ‘clients= learners’ in the language classroom.
• Learner presents a message to the knower in (L1)
• Knower listens and other learners overhear.
• The knower translates it in (L2) and passes it to the addressed learner.
• Learner repeats L2 message form to its addressee.
• Learner replays (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the message
exchanged during the language class.
• Learning is a “whole person” process and the learner is involved in the
cognitive tasks and in solution of affective conflicts.
 Curran’s Acronym (SARD)
• A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for successful
learning are collected under the acronym SARD (Curran 1976: 6), which can be
explained as follows.

• S stands for security. Unless learners feel secure, they will find it difficult to
enter into a successful learning experience.

• A stands for attention and aggression. CLL recognizes that a loss of attention
should be taken as an indication of the learner's lack of involvement in
learning, the implication being that variety in the choice of learner tasks will
increase attention and therefore promote learning. Aggression applies to the
way in which a child, having learned something, seeks an opportunity to show
his or her strength by taking over and demonstrating what has been learned,
using the new knowledge as a tool for self-assertion.
R stands for retention and reflection. If the whole person is involved
in the learning process, what is retained is internalized and becomes
a part of the learner's new persona in the foreign language.
Reflection is a consciously identified period of silence within the
framework of the lesson for the student "to focus on the learning
forces of the last hour, to assess his present stage of development,
and to re-evaluate future goals" (la Forge 1983: 68).

D denotes discrimination. When learners "have retained a body of

material, they are ready to sort it out and see how one thing relates
to another" (la Forge 1983: 69). This discrimination process becomes
more refined and ultimately "enables the students to use the
language for purposes of communication outside the classroom" (la
Forge 1983: 69).
 Objectives of CLL
Most of what has been written about CLL
describes its use in introductory conversation
courses in a foreign language.
The assumption seems to be that through the
method, the teacher can successfully transfer his
or her knowledge and proficiency in the target
language to the learners, which implies that
attaining near-native like mastery of the target
language is set as a goal. Specific
objectives are not addressed.
 CLL Syllabus
Community language learning is most often used in the teaching of
oral proficiency, but with some modifications it may be used in the
teaching of writing, as Tranel (1968) has demonstrated.

CLL does not use a conventional language syllabus, which sets out in
advance the grammar, vocabulary, and other language items to be
taught and the order in which they will be covered.

If a course is based on Curran's recommended procedures, the course

progression is topic based, with learners nominating things they wish to
talk about and messages they wish to communicate to other learners.
The teacher's responsibility is to provide a conveyance for these
meanings in a way appropriate to the learners' proficiency level.
 CLL Procedure
1. Informal greetings and self- introductions were made.
2. The teacher made a statement of the goals and guidelines for the course.
3. A conversation session in the foreign language took place.
a. A circle was formed so that everyone had visual contact with each other and all were within
easy reach of a tape recorder microphone.
b. One student initiated conversation with another student by giving a message in the L1
(Arabic).
c. The instructor, standing behind the student, whispered a close equivalent
of the message in the L2 (English).
d. The student then repeated the L2 message to its addressee and into the tape recorder
microphone as well.
e. Each student had a chance to compose and record a few messages.
f. The tape recorder was rewound and replayed at intervals.
g. Each student repeated the meaning in Arabic of what he or she had said in the L2 and
helped to refresh the memory of others.
4. Students then participated in a reflection period, in which they were
asked to express their feelings about the previous experience with total
frankness.

5. From the material just recorded the instructor chose sentences to

write on the blackboard that highlighted elements of grammar, spelling,
and peculiarities of capitalization in the L2.

6. Students were encouraged to ask questions about any of the above.

7. Students were encouraged to copy sentences from the board with

notes on meaning and usage. This became their «textbook" for home
study.
 Criticism of CLL
• CLL procedures were largely developed and tested with groups of
college-age Americans. The problems and successes experienced by
one or two different client groups may not necessarily represent
language learning universals.
• Other concerns have been expressed regarding the lack of a syllabus,
which makes objectives unclear and evaluation difficult to
accomplish, and the focus on fluency rather than accuracy, which
may lead to inadequate control of the grammatical system of the
target language.
• Supporters of CLL, on the other hand, emphasize the positive
benefits of a method that centers on the learner and stresses the
humanistic side of language learning, and not merely its linguistic
dimensions.
[The techniques] help build rapport, cohesiveness, and caring that
far transcend what is already there ... help students to be
themselves, to accept themselves, and be proud of
themselves . . , help foster a climate of caring and sharing in the
foreign language class. (Moskowitz 1978: 2)
 Total Physical Response Method (TPR)

• It is a new general approach to foreign language instruction

which has been named the “comprehension approach”
• It gives much importance to listening comprehension
• It depends upon how children acquire their mother tongue
• A baby spends many months listening to adult before it ever
says a word
• The child chooses to speak when it is ready
• It is James Asher’s total Physical Response method which
we try to introduce here
• It shares some principles with Winitz’s Comprehension
Approach(1981) in that (a)comprehension abilities precede
productive skills(b) the teaching of speaking should be delayed
until listening comprehension is established(c) skills acquired
through listening should be transferred to the other
skills(d)teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form(e)
teaching should minimize learner stress
• Imperatives are used to start different speech acts such as
requests(“ John, ask Mary to walk to the door.”), and apologies
(“Hassan , tell Hamad you are sorry.”)
• Asher also said that language should be internalized as wholes or
chunks rather than single lexical items.
 Theory behind TPR
Asher does not directly discuss the nature of language or how
languages are organized. However, the labeling and ordering of
TPR classroom drills seem to be built on assumptions that owe
much to structuralist or grammar-based views of language.
Asher states that " most of the grammatical structure of the
target language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be
learned from the skillful use of the imperative by the
instructor" (1977: 4).
He views the verb, and particularly the verb in the imperative, as
the central linguistic motif around which language use and
learning are organized.
 Theory of TPA Cont.
• Asher's Total Physical Response is a "Natural Method" , inasmuch as Asher
sees first and second language learning as parallel processes. Second
language teaching and Iearning should reflect the naturalistic processes of
first language learning.
• Asher sees three processes as central:
(a) Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to
speak. They can understand complex utterances that they cannot
spontaneously produce.
(b) Children’s ability in listening comprehension is acquired by responding
physically to parental oral commands.
(c) Once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established,
speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.
 Objectives of TPR

The general objectives of Total Physical

Response are to teach oral proficiency at a
beginning level. Comprehension is a means to
an end, and the ultimate aim is to teach basic
speaking skills through imperatives. A TPR
course aims to produce learners who are
capable of an uninhibited communication that
is intelligible to a native speaker.
 Criticism of TPR
It has enjoyed some popularity because of its
support by those who emphasize the role of
comprehension in second language acquisition. Krashen
(1981), for example, sees performing physical actions in
the target language as a means of 'making input
comprehensible and minimizing stress’. It is most useful
for beginners and active students. However, it places
much emphasis on imperative mood which is of limited
utility to the learner. It does not give the students the
opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative
way.
 TPR Criticism Cont.
• TPR represents a useful set of techniques and is
compatible with other approaches to teaching.
• TPR practices and activities do not require a great deal
of preparation by the teacher. It is also aptitude- free,
working well with a mixed ability class, and with students
having various disabilities and class size is not a problem.
• Proponents of Communicative Language Teaching would
question the relevance to real-world learner needs of the
TPR syllabus and the utterances and sentences used
within it.
 The Oral Approach &Situational
Language Teaching
• It was developed in the 1920s and 1930s by two
British linguists ,Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby
• Palmer and Hornby classified the English grammatical
structures into sentence patterns ( later called “
substitution tables”) which could be used to help
internalize grammatical rules
• These sentence patterns were later incorporated in
the first dictionary of English as a foreign language
developed by Hornby and others in 1953 as The
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
 Oral Approach Cont.
• Thus the Oral Approach was firmly established as the
foundation for teaching English as a foreign language for the
British approach in TEFL/ TESL
• In this approach teaching begins with the speaking skill.
Language is taught orally before it is presented in its written
form.
• The target language is the language of the classroom
• New language points are presented and practiced
situationally
• Vocabulary selection procedure is followed to ensure that an
essential general service vocabulary is covered
 Oral Approach Cont.
• Items of grammar are graded following the principle that
simple forms should be taught before complex ones
• Reading and writing are introduced since a sufficient
lexical and grammatical basis is established
• Word order , structural words , the few English inflections,
and content words will form the material for the teaching
• The link of structures to situations gave Situational
Language Teaching one of its distinctive features
• It continued to be widely used in the 1980s and led or
paved the way to Communicative Language Teaching
 Applications of Oral Approach
• Few language teachers in the 1990s are familiar with the terms Oral
Approach or Situational Language Teaching, the impact of the Oral
Approach has been long lasting, and it has shaped the design of many
widely used TEFL&TESL textbooks and courses, including many still being
used today.
• One of the most successful ESL courses of recent times, Streamline English
(Hartley and Viney 1979), reflects the classic principles of Situational
Language Teaching, as do many other widely used series (e.g., Access to
English, Coles and Lord 1975; Kernel Lessons Plus, O'Neill 1973; and many
of L. G. Alexander's widely used textbooks, e.g., Alexander 1967).
• As a recent British methodology text states, "This method is widely used at
the time of writing and a very large number of textbooks are based on it"
(Hubbard et al. 1983: 36).
 Criticism and Conclusion
• In the mid-sixties, however, the view of language
learning, and language teaching underlying Situational
Language Teaching was called into question and this
led to Communicative Language Teaching.
• But because the principles of Situational Language
Teaching, with its strong emphasis on oral practice,
grammar, and sentence patterns, conform to the
intuitions of many practically oriented classroom
teachers, it continues to be widely used in the 1980s.
 Comparing Methods
• Total Physical Response and Community Language Learning stand
in contrast at the level of design; TPR has a written syllabus while
CLL has no syllabus at all and operates from what students prefer
to learn.
• In TPR the teacher’s role is a drill master, director and motivator.
In CLL the teacher/knower is counselor ,supporter and facilitator.
• TPR learners are physically active and mobile. CLL learners are
sedentary and in a fixed configuration
• TPR emphasizes the importance of learners working alone and
neglects relationships among individuals. CLL is rooted in
communal relationship between learners and teachers as
supporters to each other, just like a concert.
 Comparison Cont.
• At the level of procedure , we find that TPR practice is largely
mechanical , with much emphasis on listening . CLL practice is
innovative with much emphasis on production
• However, they share some elements in common; both TPR and
CLL see stress, defensiveness and embarrassment as blocks
impeding successful learning. They both see the learners’
commitment , attention and group participation as central to
overcoming these barriers.
• They both view the stages of adult language learning as
recapitulation of the stages of childhood language learning and
both TPR and CLL consider memory and recall of linguistic
elements to be central issues.
 Comparison Cont.
• TPR holds with CLL that the learner must be physiologically and
intellectually involved in learning as active participant.
• At the level of design neither TPR nor CLL assumes method –specific
materials, but both assume that materials can be locally produced
when needed.
• Some methods and approaches differ in the priority they give to
content versus instructional issues. Both Audio-lingual method and
some versions of Communicative Language Teaching see content as
crucial to language teaching i.e. seeing the syllabus as an essential
component to a language course.
• On the other hand, methods such as the Silent Way, the Natural
Approach and Total Physical Response give the syllabus a major
importance .
 Evaluating Methods
• Evaluation refers to procedures for gathering data on the
dynamics, effectiveness, acceptability, and efficiency of a
language program for the purposes of decision making.
• If adequate evaluation data were available about the
methods we have, we expect to find answers to questions
such as
• What aspects of language proficiency does the method
address?
• With what kinds of learners (children, adults, etc.) IS the
method most effective?

• Is the method most effective with elementary, intermediate,

or advanced learners?
 Answers to Previous Questions
• Answers to questions like these would enable decisions to be made about
the relevance of specific methods to particular kinds of language programs.

• In order to answer these kinds of questions we look to four kinds of data:

descriptive data, observational data, effectiveness data, and comparative
data.

• Let us consider each of these in turn:

• Descriptive data are objectives (as far as possible) descriptions and
accounts , usually made by teachers, of specific procedures used in
teaching according to a particular method. They may take the form of
amplified records of lesson plans, with detailed comments on the exact
steps followed.
 Answers Cont.
• Observational data refer to recorded observations
of methods as they are being taught. Such data can
be used to evaluate whether the method
implemented actually conforms to its underlying
philosophy or approach. The observer is typically
not the teacher, but a trained observer (with a note
pad, tape recorder, video equipment, or some
other means) gathering the moment-to-moment
behaviors of teachers and learners in the classroom.
 Answers Cont.
• Effectiveness data
• The third kind of information needed is data on
the extent to which particular methods have been
found to be effective. What is needed minimally
for specific methods is (1) documented studies of
instances where a method has been used with
reference to a specific set of objectives and (2)
reliable and valid measures of gains in proficiency
made by learners relative to the objectives
 Answers Cont.
• Comparative data
• The most difficult kind of data to provide is
that which offers evidence that one method is
more effective than another if compared in
terms of attaining program objectives.
 Technique
... A technique is an implementation that
actually takes place in a classroom.
It is a particular trick, strategy , or contrivance
used to accomplish an immediate objective.
Techniques must be consistent with a method,
and therefore in harmony with an approach as
well. (Anthony 1963:63-7). A technique then
is a one single procedure.
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of

language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. 1t describes the

nature of the subject matter to be taught. ..when we use the term approach

we mean that an idea or theory is being applied: that whatever the teacher

does , certain theoretical principles are always borne in mind

A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of

language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of

which is based upon, the selected approach.

An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural . It

consists of a number of techniques. Within one approach,

there can be many methods . ..

 Eclectic Approach
• An approach which adopts any technique or
procedure, so long as it can be shown that it
results in successful learning.
• Probably most teachers of EFL if asked what
method they use ,they would say that their
approach is eclectic.
• By this, they mean that they do not follow any
single method, but rather that they use a
selection of techniques.
 Eclectic Approach cont.
• Such an approach to TEFL has many advantages.
• It is much more flexible and can easily be
adapted to suit a wide variety of teaching
situations.
• A teacher who approaches TEFL eclectically is
not fixed in one single method and often keeps
an eye open for new techniques and
approaches.
 Eclectic Approach cont.
• Hence, a teacher must adopt techniques and skills
which are successful. If the techniques work
appropriately, he has to use them.
• A technique is successful if it achieves the learning
objectives.
• However it is important that teachers must be
aware with some of the theoretical principles which
lie behind the major trends in foreign language
teaching lest they become merely practitioners of
second-hand technology.
 Task-based Instruction/Learning/ Approach

Task -based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the
teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the
completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the
students complete it. In a Task-Based Approach students are confronted with approximations
of the kind of task they are going to perform outside the classroom and learn the relevant type
of language that these kinds of tasks involve official documents issued by municipal board the
students have to work with these kinds of documents in the language course. If students
want to develop the ability to write short reports of observations they have made, the will be
confronted with this kind of task in the classroom. Hence, the Task -Based syllabus takes
holistic functional tasks as the basic unit for the design of educational activities
The lesson follows certain stages:
 Pre-task
• The teacher introduces the topic and gives the
students clear instructions on what they will
have to do at the task stage and might help the
students to recall some language that may be
useful for the task. The pre-task stage can also
often include playing a recording of people doing
the task. This gives the students a clear model of
what will be expected of them. The students can
take notes and spend time preparing for the task.
 Task

The students complete a task in pairs or

groups using the language resources that they
have as the teacher monitors and offers
encouragement.
 Planning
• Students prepare a short oral or written report
to tell the class what happened during their
task. They then practice what they are going
to say in their groups. Meanwhile the teacher
is available for the students to ask for advice
to clear up any language questions they may
have.
 Report 
• Students then report back to the class orally
or read the written report. The teacher
chooses the order of when students will
present their reports and may give the
students some quick feedback on the content.
At this stage the teacher may also play a
recording of others doing the same task for
the students to compare.
 Analysis
• The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of
the recording for the students to analyze. They may ask
students to notice interesting features within this text. The
teacher can also highlight the language that the students
used during the report phase for analysis.
• Practice
Finally, the teacher selects language areas to practice
based upon the needs of the students and what emerged
from the task and report phases. The students then do
practice activities to increase their confidence and make a
note of useful language.
 The advantages of TBL
Task-based learning has some clear advantages:
• Students are free of language control. In all three stages they must use all their
language resources rather than just practicing one pre-selected item.
• A natural context is developed from the students' experiences with the language
that is personalized and relevant to them.
• The students will have a much more varied exposure to language with TBL. They
will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations and patterns as
well as language forms.
• The language explored arises from the students' needs. This need dictates what will
be covered in the lesson rather than a decision made by the teacher or the course
book.
• It is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of time
communicating.
• It is enjoyable and motivating.
 Conclusion
• PPP offers a very simplified approach to language learning. It is based
upon the idea that you can present language in neat little blocks,
adding from one lesson to the next. However, research shows us that
we cannot predict or guarantee what the students will learn and that
ultimately a wide exposure to language is the best way of ensuring
that students will acquire it effectively. Restricting their experience to
single pieces of target language is unnatural.
• For more information see 'A Framework for Task-Based Learning' by
Jane Wills, Longman; 'Doing Task-Based Teaching' by Dave and Jane
Willis, OUP 2007. 
Also see www.willis-elt.co.uk
• Richard Frost, British Council, Turkey