1

Chapter 2 - Control Structures

 2

2.1 Introduction

• Before writing a program

– Have a thorough understanding of problem
– Carefully plan your approach for solving it
• While writing a program
– Know what “building blocks” are available
– Use good programming principles
 3

2.2 Algorithms

• Computing problems
– Solved by executing a series of actions in a specific order
• Algorithm a procedure determining
– Actions to be executed
– Order to be executed
– Example: recipe
• Program control
– Specifies the order in which statements are executed
 4

2.3 Pseudocode

• Pseudocode
– Artificial, informal language used to develop algorithms
– Similar to everyday English
• Not executed on computers
– Used to think out program before coding
• Easy to convert into C++ program
– Only executable statements
• No need to declare variables
 5

2.4 Control Structures

• Sequential execution
– Statements executed in order
• Transfer of control
– Next statement executed not next one in sequence
• 3 control structures (Bohm and Jacopini)
– Sequence structure
• Programs executed sequentially by default
– Selection structures
• if, if/else, switch
– Repetition structures
• while, do/while, for
 6

2.4 Control Structures

• C++ keywords
– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
C ++ Ke yw o rd s

Keywords common to the

C and C++ programming
languages
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
C++ only keywords
asm bool catch class const_cast
delete dynamic_cast explicit false friend
inline mutable namespace new operator
private protected public reinterpret_cast
static_cast template this throw true
try typeid typename using virtual
wchar_t
 7

2.4 Control Structures

• Flowchart
– Graphical representation of an algorithm
– Special-purpose symbols connected by arrows (flowlines)
– Rectangle symbol (action symbol)
• Any type of action
– Oval symbol
• Beginning or end of a program, or a section of code (circles)
• Single-entry/single-exit control structures
– Connect exit point of one to entry point of the next
– Control structure stacking
 8

2.5 if Selection Structure

• Selection structure
– Choose among alternative courses of action
– Pseudocode example:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
– If the condition is true
• Print statement executed, program continues to next statement
– If the condition is false
• Print statement ignored, program continues
– Indenting makes programs easier to read
• C++ ignores whitespace characters (tabs, spaces, etc.)
 9

2.5 if Selection Structure

• Translation into C++

If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”

if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";

 
• Diamond symbol (decision symbol)
– Indicates decision is to be made
– Contains an expression that can be true or false
• Test condition, follow path
• if structure
– Single-entry/single-exit
 10

2.5 if Selection Structure

• Flowchart of pseudocode statement

A decision can be made on

any expression.

true zero - false

grade >= 60 print “Passed”
nonzero - true
Example:
false
3 - 4 is true
 11

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• if
– Performs action if condition true
• if/else
– Different actions if conditions true or false
• Pseudocode
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
print “Passed”
else
print “Failed”
• C++ code
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
else
cout << "Failed";
 12

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Ternary conditional operator (?:)

– Three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)
• Code could be written:
cout << ( grade >= 60 ? “Passed” : “Failed” );

Condition Value if true Value if false

false true
grade >= 60

print “Failed” print “Passed”

 13

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Nested if/else structures

– One inside another, test for multiple cases
– Once condition met, other statements skipped
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”
 14

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Example
if ( grade >= 90 ) // 90 and above
cout << "A";
else if ( grade >= 80 ) // 80-89
cout << "B";
else if ( grade >= 70 ) // 70-79
cout << "C";
else if ( grade >= 60 ) // 60-69
cout << "D";
else // less than 60
cout << "F";
 15

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Compound statement
– Set of statements within a pair of braces
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed.\n";
else {
cout << "Failed.\n";
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
}
– Without braces,
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
always executed
• Block
– Set of statements within braces
 16

2.7 while Repetition Structure

• Repetition structure
– Action repeated while some condition remains true
– Psuedocode
while there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
 
– while loop repeated until condition becomes false
• Example
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;
 17

2.7 The while Repetition Structure

• Flowchart of while loop

true
product <= 1000 product = 2 * product

false
 18
2.8 Formulating Algorithms (Counter-
Controlled Repetition)
• Counter-controlled repetition
– Loop repeated until counter reaches certain value
• Definite repetition
– Number of repetitions known
• Example
A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers in
the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you.
Determine the class average on the quiz.
 19
2.8 Formulating Algorithms (Counter-
Controlled Repetition)
• Pseudocode for example:
Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average

• Next: C++ code for this example

 20
1 // Fig. 2.7: fig02_07.cpp
2 // Class average program with counter-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int total; // sum of grades input by user
13 int gradeCounter; // number of grade to be entered next
14 int grade; // grade value
15 int average; // average of grades
16
17 // initialization phase
18 total = 0; // initialize total
19 gradeCounter = 1; // initialize loop counter
20
 21
21 // processing phase
22 while ( gradeCounter <= 10 ) { // loop 10 times
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
27 }
28
29 // termination phase
30 average = total / 10; // integer division
31
32 // display result
33 cout << "Class average is " << average << endl;
The counter gets incremented each
34
time the loop executes.
35 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
36
Eventually, the counter causes the
37 } // end function main loop to end.

Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81
 22
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Suppose problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run
– Unknown number of students
– How will program know when to end?
• Sentinel value
– Indicates “end of data entry”
– Loop ends when sentinel input
– Sentinel chosen so it cannot be confused with regular input
• -1 in this case
 23
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Top-down, stepwise refinement
– Begin with pseudocode representation of top
Determine the class average for the quiz
– Divide top into smaller tasks, list in order
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average
 24
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Many programs have three phases
– Initialization
• Initializes the program variables
– Processing
• Input data, adjusts program variables
– Termination
• Calculate and print the final results
– Helps break up programs for top-down refinement
 25
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Refine the initialization phase
Initialize variables
goes to
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
• Processing
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
goes to
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)
 26
2.9 Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-
Controlled Repetition)
• Termination
Calculate and print the class average
goes to
If the counter is not equal to zero
Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
Else
Print “No grades were entered”
• Next: C++ program
 27
1 // Fig. 2.9: fig02_09.cpp
2 // Class average program with sentinel-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip> // parameterized stream manipulators
11
12 using std::setprecision; // sets numeric output precision
13
14 // function main begins program execution
15 int main()
16 { Data type double used to represent
17 int total; // sum of grades
decimal numbers.
18 int gradeCounter; // number of grades entered
19 int grade; // grade value
20
21 double average; // number with decimal point for average
22
23 // initialization phase
24 total = 0; // initialize total
25 gradeCounter = 0; // initialize loop counter
 28
26
27 // processing phase
28 // get first grade from user
29 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
30 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
31
32 // loop until sentinel value read from user
33 while ( grade != -1 ) static_cast<double>()
{ treats total as a
34 double temporarily
total = total + grade; (casting).
// add grade to total
35 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
36 Required because dividing two integers truncates the
37 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
remainder.
38 cin >> grade; // read next grade
39
gradeCounter is an int, but it gets promoted to
40 } // end while
41
double.
42 // termination phase
43 // if user entered at least one grade ...
44 if ( gradeCounter != 0 ) {
45
46 // calculate average of all grades entered
47 average = static_cast< double >( total ) / gradeCounter;
48
 29
49 // display average with two digits of precision
50 cout << "Class average is " << setprecision( 2 )
51 << fixed << average << endl;
52
53 } // end if part of if/else
54
55 else // if no grades were entered, output appropriate message
56 cout << "No grades were entered" << endl;
57
58 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
59
60 } // end function main

fixed forces output setprecision(2)prints

to print two digits past
Enter grade, -1 to end: 75 decimal
in fixed point format (not point (rounded to fit precision).
Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
Enter grade, -1 to end: 97
scientific notation). Also,
Enter grade, -1 to end: 88 forces trailing zerosPrograms
and that use this must include <iomanip>
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70 decimal point to print.
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64
Enter grade, -1 to end: 83 Include <iostream>
Enter grade, -1 to end: 89
Enter grade, -1 to end: -1
Class average is 82.50
 30

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Problem statement
A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students. Write a program that analyzes the results. If more
than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition".
• Notice that
– Program processes 10 results
• Fixed number, use counter-controlled loop
– Two counters can be used
• One counts number that passed
• Another counts number that fail
– Each test result is 1 or 2
• If not 1, assume 2
 31

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Top level outline

Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised
• First refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition
should be raised
• Refine
Initialize variables
to
Initialize passes to zero
Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to one
 32

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Refine
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
to
While student counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
Else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter
 33

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Refine
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should
be raised
to
Print the number of passes
Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print “Raise tuition”
• Program next
 34
1 // Fig. 2.11: fig02_11.cpp
2 // Analysis of examination results.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 // initialize variables in declarations
13 int passes = 0; // number of passes
14 int failures = 0; // number of failures
15 int studentCounter = 1; // student counter
16 int result; // one exam result
17
18 // process 10 students using counter-controlled loop
19 while ( studentCounter <= 10 ) {
20
21 // prompt user for input and obtain value from user
22 cout << "Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): ";
23 cin >> result;
24
 35
25 // if result 1, increment passes; if/else nested in while
26 if ( result == 1 ) // if/else nested in while
27 passes = passes + 1;
28
29 else // if result not 1, increment failures
30 failures = failures + 1;
31
32 // increment studentCounter so loop eventually terminates
33 studentCounter = studentCounter + 1;
34
35 } // end while
36
37 // termination phase; display number of passes and failures
38 cout << "Passed " << passes << endl;
39 cout << "Failed " << failures << endl;
40
41 // if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition"
42 if ( passes > 8 )
43 cout << "Raise tuition " << endl;
44
45 return 0; // successful termination
46
47 } // end function main
 36
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition
 37

2.11 Assignment Operators

• Assignment expression abbreviations

– Addition assignment operator
c = c + 3; abbreviated to
c += 3;
• Statements of the form
variable = variable operator expression;
can be rewritten as
variable operator= expression;
• Other assignment operators
d -= 4 (d = d - 4)
e *= 5 (e = e * 5)
f /= 3 (f = f / 3)
g %= 9 (g = g % 9)
 38

2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

• Increment operator (++) - can be used instead of c
+= 1
• Decrement operator (--) - can be used instead of c -
= 1
– Preincrement
• When the operator is used before the variable (++c or –c)
• Variable is changed, then the expression it is in is evaluated.
– Postincrement
• When the operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)
• Expression the variable is in executes, then the variable is changed.
 39

2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

• Increment operator (++)

– Increment variable by one
– c++
• Same as c += 1
• Decrement operator (--) similar
– Decrement variable by one
– c--
 40

2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

• Preincrement
– Variable changed before used in expression
• Operator before variable (++c or --c)
• Postincrement
– Incremented changed after expression
• Operator after variable (c++, c--)
 41

2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

• If c = 5, then
– cout << ++c;
• c is changed to 6, then printed out
– cout << c++;
• Prints out 5 (cout is executed before the increment.
• c then becomes 6
 42

2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

• When variable not in expression

– Preincrementing and postincrementing have same effect
++c;
cout << c;
and
c++;
cout << c;

are the same

 43
1 // Fig. 2.14: fig02_14.cpp
2 // Preincrementing and postincrementing.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int c; // declare variable
12
13 // demonstrate postincrement
14 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
15 cout << c << endl; // print 5
16 cout << c++ << endl; // print 5 then postincrement
17 cout << c << endl << endl; // print 6
18
19 // demonstrate preincrement
20 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
21 cout << c << endl; // print 5
22 cout << ++c << endl; // preincrement then print 6
23 cout << c << endl; // print 6
 44
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination
26
27 } // end function main

5
5
6
 
5
6
6
 45

2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition

• Counter-controlled repetition requires

– Name of control variable/loop counter
– Initial value of control variable
– Condition to test for final value
– Increment/decrement to modify control variable when
looping
 46
1 // Fig. 2.16: fig02_16.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialization
12
13 while ( counter <= 10 ) { // repetition condition
14 cout << counter << endl; // display counter
15 ++counter; // increment
16
17 } // end while
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main
 47
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
 48

2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition

• The declaration
int counter = 1;
– Names counter
– Declares counter to be an integer
– Reserves space for counter in memory
– Sets counter to an initial value of 1
 49

2.14 for Repetition Structure

• General format when using for loops
for ( initialization; LoopContinuationTest;
increment )
statement
 
• Example
for( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
cout << counter << endl;
– Prints integers from one to ten
No
semicolon
after last
statement
 50
1 // Fig. 2.17: fig02_17.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition with the for structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // Initialization, repetition condition and incrementing
12 // are all included in the for structure header.
13
14 for ( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
15 cout << counter << endl;
16
17 return 0; // indicate successful termination
18
19 } // end function main
 51
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
 52

2.14 for Repetition Structure

• for loops can usually be rewritten as while loops
initialization;
while ( loopContinuationTest){
statement
increment;
}
• Initialization and increment
– For multiple variables, use comma-separated lists
for (int i = 0, j = 0; j + i <= 10; j++, i++)
cout << j + i << endl;
 53
1 // Fig. 2.20: fig02_20.cpp
2 // Summation with for.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int sum = 0; // initialize sum
12
13 // sum even integers from 2 through 100
14 for ( int number = 2; number <= 100; number += 2 )
15 sum += number; // add number to sum
16
17 cout << "Sum is " << sum << endl; // output sum
18 return 0; // successful termination
19
20 } // end function main

Sum is 2550
 54

2.15 Examples Using the for Structure

• Program to calculate compound interest

• A person invests $1000.00 in a savings account yielding 5 percent
interest. Assuming that all interest is left on deposit in the account,
calculate and print the amount of money in the account at the end of
each year for 10 years. Use the following formula for determining
these amounts:
n
a = p(1+r)
• p is the original amount invested (i.e., the principal),
r is the annual interest rate,
n is the number of years and
a is the amount on deposit at the end of the nth year
 55
1 // Fig. 2.21: fig02_21.cpp
2 // Calculating compound interest.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7 using std::ios;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip>
11
<cmath> header needed for
12 using std::setw; the pow function (program
13 using std::setprecision; will not compile without it).
14
15 #include <cmath> // enables program to use function pow
16
17 // function main begins program execution
18 int main()
19 {
20 double amount; // amount on deposit
21 double principal = 1000.0; // starting principal
22 double rate = .05; // interest rate
23
 56
24 // output table column heads
25 cout << "Year" << setw( 21 ) << "Amount on deposit" << endl;
26
Sets the field width to at least
27 // set floating-point number format
21 characters. If output less
28 cout << fixed << setprecision( 2 );
29
than 21, it is right-justified.
30 // calculate amount on deposit for each of ten years
31 for ( int year = 1; year <= 10; year++ ) {
32
pow(x,y) = x raised to the
33 // calculate new amount for specified year yth power.
34 amount = principal * pow( 1.0 + rate, year );
35
36 // output one table row
37 cout << setw( 4 ) << year
38 << setw( 21 ) << amount << endl;
39
40 } // end for
41
42 return 0; // indicate successful termination
43
44 } // end function main
 57
Year Amount on deposit
1 1050.00
2 1102.50
3 1157.63
4 1215.51
5 1276.28
6 1340.10
7 1407.10
8 1477.46
9 1551.33
10 1628.89

Numbers are right-justified

due to setw statements (at
positions 4 and 21).
 58

2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure

• switch
– Test variable for multiple values
– Series of case labels and optional default case
switch ( variable ) {
case value1: // taken if variable == value1
statements
break; // necessary to exit switch

case value2:
case value3: // taken if variable == value2 or ==
value3
statements
break;

default: // taken if variable matches no other

cases
statements
break;
}
 59

2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure

true
case a case a action(s) break

false

true
case b case b action(s) break

false

.
.
.

true
case z case z action(s) break

false

default action(s)
 60

2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure

• Example upcoming
– Program to read grades (A-F)
– Display number of each grade entered
• Details about characters
– Single characters typically stored in a char data type
• char a 1-byte integer, so chars can be stored as ints
– Can treat character as int or char
• 97 is the numerical representation of lowercase ‘a’ (ASCII)
• Use single quotes to get numerical representation of character
cout << "The character (" << 'a' << ") has the value "

<< static_cast< int > ( 'a' ) << endl;

Prints
The character (a) has the value 97
 61
1 // Fig. 2.22: fig02_22.cpp
2 // Counting letter grades.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int grade; // one grade
13 int aCount = 0; // number of As
14 int bCount = 0; // number of Bs
15 int cCount = 0; // number of Cs
16 int dCount = 0; // number of Ds
17 int fCount = 0; // number of Fs
18
19 cout << "Enter the letter grades." << endl
20 << "Enter the EOF character to end input." << endl;
21
 62
22 // loop until user types end-of-file key sequence
23 while ( ( grade = cin.get() ) != EOF ) { break causes switch to end and
24 the program continues with the first
25 // determine which grade was input statement after the switch structure.
26 switch ( grade ) { // switch structure nested in while
27
28 case 'A': // grade was uppercase A
cin.get() uses dot notation
29 case 'a': // or lowercase a
30 ++aCount; // increment aCount
(explained chapter 6). This
31 break; // necessary to exit switch function gets 1 character from the
32
Assignment statements have a keyboard (after Enter pressed), and
33 case 'B': value,was
// grade which is the same
uppercase B as it is assigned to grade.
34 case 'b': the variable
// or lowercase b on the left of the
35 ++bCount; =. The value
// increment of this statement cin.get() returns EOF (end-of-
bCount
36 break;
Compares grade (an int) to is theswitch
// exit same as the value file) after the EOF character is
37
the numerical representations returned by cin.get(). input, to indicate the end of data.
38 case 'C': // grade was uppercase C
EOF may be ctrl-d or ctrl-z,
39of A and a. case 'c': // or lowercase c
This can also be used to depending on your OS.
40 ++cCount; // increment cCount
initialize multiple variables:
41 break; // exit switch
42
a = b = c = 0;
 63
43 case 'D': // grade was uppercase D
44 case 'd': // or lowercase d
45 ++dCount; // increment dCount
46 break; // exit switch
47 This test is necessary because
48 case 'F': // Enter is pressed
grade was uppercase F after each
49 case 'f': // or lowercase f
letter grade is input. This adds
50 ++fCount; // increment fCount
a newline character that must
51 break; // exit switch
be removed. Likewise, we
52
53 case '\n': //
want to ignore any
ignore newlines,
54 case '\t': // tabs, whitespace.
55 case ' ': // and spaces in input
56 break; Notice the default
// exit switch statement, which
57 catches all other cases.
58 default: // catch all other characters
59 cout << "Incorrect letter grade entered."
60 << " Enter a new grade." << endl;
61 break; // optional; will exit switch anyway
62
63 } // end switch
64
65 } // end while
66
 64
67 // output summary of results
68 cout << "\n\nTotals for each letter grade are:"
69 << "\nA: " << aCount // display number of A grades
70 << "\nB: " << bCount // display number of B grades
71 << "\nC: " << cCount // display number of C grades
72 << "\nD: " << dCount // display number of D grades
73 << "\nF: " << fCount // display number of F grades
74 << endl;
75
76 return 0; // indicate successful termination
77
78 } // end function main
 65
Enter the letter grades.
Enter the EOF character to end input.
a
B
c
C
A
d
f
C
E
Incorrect letter grade entered. Enter a new grade.
D
A
b
^Z
 
 
Totals for each letter grade are:
A: 3
B: 2
C: 3
D: 2
F: 1
 66

2.17 do/while Repetition Structure

• Similar to while structure

– Makes loop continuation test at end, not beginning
– Loop body executes at least once
• Format
do {
statement
} while ( condition ); action(s)

true
condition

false
 67
1 // Fig. 2.24: fig02_24.cpp
2 // Using the do/while repetition structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialize counter
12 Notice the preincrement in
13 do { loop-continuation test.
14 cout << counter << " "; // display counter
15 } while ( ++counter <= 10 ); // end do/while
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 68

2.18 break and continue Statements

• break statement
– Immediate exit from while, for, do/while, switch
– Program continues with first statement after structure
• Common uses
– Escape early from a loop
– Skip the remainder of switch
 69
1 // Fig. 2.26: fig02_26.cpp
2 // Using the break statement in a for structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11
12 int x; // x declared here so it can be used after the loop
13
14 // loop 10 times
15 for ( x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) { Exits for structure when
16 break executed.
17 // if x is 5, terminate loop
18 if ( x == 5 )
19 break; // break loop only if x is 5
20
21 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
22
23 } // end for
24
25 cout << "\nBroke out of loop when x became " << x << endl;
 70
26
27 return 0; // indicate successful termination
28
29 } // end function main

1 2 3 4
Broke out of loop when x became 5
 71

2.18 break and continue Statements

• continue statement
– Used in while, for, do/while
– Skips remainder of loop body
– Proceeds with next iteration of loop
• while and do/while structure
– Loop-continuation test evaluated immediately after the
continue statement
• for structure
– Increment expression executed
– Next, loop-continuation test evaluated
 72
1 // Fig. 2.27: fig02_27.cpp
2 // Using the continue statement in a for structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // loop 10 times
12 for ( int x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) {
13 Skips to next iteration of the
14 // if x is 5, continue with loop.
next iteration of loop
15 if ( x == 5 )
16 continue; // skip remaining code in loop body
17
18 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
19
20 } // end for structure
21
22 cout << "\nUsed continue to skip printing the value 5"
23 << endl;
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination
 73
26
27 } // end function main

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
Used continue to skip printing the value 5
 74

2.19 Logical Operators

• Used as conditions in loops, if statements

• && (logical AND)
– true if both conditions are true
if ( gender == 1 && age >= 65 )
++seniorFemales;
• || (logical OR)
– true if either of condition is true
if ( semesterAverage >= 90 || finalExam >= 90 )
cout << "Student grade is A" << endl;
 75

2.19 Logical Operators

• ! (logical NOT, logical negation)

– Returns true when its condition is false, & vice versa
if ( !( grade == sentinelValue ) )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;
Alternative:
if ( grade != sentinelValue )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;
 76
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment
(=) Operators
• Common error
– Does not typically cause syntax errors
• Aspects of problem
– Expressions that have a value can be used for decision
• Zero = false, nonzero = true
– Assignment statements produce a value (the value to be
assigned)
 77
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment
(=) Operators
• Example
if ( payCode == 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– If paycode is 4, bonus given

• If == was replaced with =

if ( payCode = 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– Paycode set to 4 (no matter what it was before)
– Statement is true (since 4 is non-zero)
– Bonus given in every case
 78
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment
(=) Operators
• Lvalues
– Expressions that can appear on left side of equation
– Can be changed (I.e., variables)
• x = 4;
• Rvalues
– Only appear on right side of equation
– Constants, such as numbers (i.e. cannot write 4 = x;)
• Lvalues can be used as rvalues, but not vice versa
 79

2.21 Structured-Programming Summary

• Structured programming
 
– Programs easier to understand, test, debug and modify
• Rules for structured programming
– Only use single-entry/single-exit control structures
 
– Rules
1) Begin with the “simplest flowchart”
2) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by two rectangles
(actions) in sequence
3) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by any control
structure (sequence, if, if/else, switch, while, do/while or for)
4) Rules 2 and 3 can be applied in any order and multiple times
 80

2.21 Structured-Programming Summary

Representation of Rule 3 (replacing any rectangle with a control structure)

Rule 3

Rule 3 Rule 3
 81

2.21 Structured-Programming Summary

• All programs broken down into

– Sequence
– Selection
• if, if/else, or switch
• Any selection can be rewritten as an if statement
– Repetition
• while, do/while or for
• Any repetition structure can be rewritten as a while
statement