COMPUTER NETWORKS

& SYSTEMS APPROACH

UNIT – III
Media Access Control Layer
Contents

Media Access Control

Wireless LANs
IEEE 802.11
ALOHA
CSMA/CD
Random Access
Controlled Access
Channelization
Switching
 Multiple Access Protocols
 If more than 2 nodes send data at the same time → collision

 All collided packets are lost → waste of bandwidth

 We need multiple access protocols to coordinate access to multipoint or broadcast

link.
 Multiple access protocols are needed in LANs, Wi-Fi, and satellite networks to

control the share media.

 Human Communication Protocols
Problem of controlling the access to the medium is similar to the rules of
speaking in an assembly :
 Give everyone a chance to speak

 Raise your hand if you have a question

 Don’t speak until you are spoken to

 Don’t interrupt when someone is speaking

 Don’t monopolize the conversation

 Don’t fall asleep when someone else is talking

 MAC Sub layer
 Data link layer is divided into two sub layers: Upper and Lower

 Logical Link Control (LLC): responsible for data link control (flow

and error control)

 Medium Access Control (MAC): resolves the multiple access to

shared media
Taxonomy of Multiple-Access Protocols
 Random Access Protocols
 In random access or contention methods, no station is superior to another
station and none is assigned the control over another.
 No station permits another station to send.
 At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure defined
by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to send.

 ALOHA

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection(CSMA/CD)

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

 Random Access
• Each station has the right to the medium without being controlled by any
other station.

Two features gives the method its name:

• There is no schedule time for a station to transmit:
- transmission is random among stations
• Stations compete with one another to access the medium
- Contention method.

• Collision: An access conflict occurs when more than one station tries to
send, as a result the frame will be either destroyed or modified.
 Random Access
 Each station follows a procedure that answer the following questions to
avoid collision:
 When can the station access the medium?

 What can the station do if the medium is busy?

 How can the station determine the success or failure of the

transmission?
 What can the station do if there is an access conflict ?
 Evolution of Random-Access methods
ALOHA: Uses MA (Multiple Access), No carrier sense

CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access

CSMA/CD: CSMA with Collision Detection

CSMA/CA: CSMA with Collision Avoidance

 Pure ALOHA
 Developed at the University of Hawaii
 Simple method where each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to
send.
 Since there is only one channel to share, there is the possibility of collision
between frames from different stations.
Frames in a Pure ALOHA network
 Pure ALOHA
 It relies on acknowledgments from the receiver. If the ACK dose not arrive
before the time-out period, the station resends the frame.
 Time-out is equal to the max possible round trip time = 2 x Tp
 Tp (max. propagation time) time required to send a frame between the
most widely separated station.
 To minimize collisions, each station waits a random amount of time (back-
off time TB) before resending its frame.
 TB is a random value that depend on K (the number of attempted
unsuccessful transmissions) .
 After a max. no. of retransmission attempts Kmax, a station must give up
and try later to prevent congestion.
Procedure for Pure ALOHA protocol
 Slotted ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of Pure ALOHA

 It divides the time into slots of Tfr and force the station to send only at the
beginning of the time slot.

 If the station miss the beginning of synchronized time slot, it must wait
until the beginning of next time slot.
Frames in a Slotted ALOHA network
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Developed to minimize collisions and increase the performance
 A station now “follows” the activity of other stations
 Simple rules for a polite human conversation
 If someone else begins talking at the same time as you, stop talking
 Based on the principle “Listen before talk” or “Sense before transmit”

CSMA
 A node should not send, if another node is already sending → carrier
sensing

 A node should stop transmission if there is interference → collision

detection
 CSMA
 Sense the carrier before transmit : “listen before you talk”
 CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it can not eliminate
it because of the propagation delay (a station may sense the medium
and find it idle, only because the first bit of a frame sent by another
station has not been received).
Space/Time model of collision of CSMA

C
 Vulnerable time in CSMA
 Vulnerable time: Time in which there is a possibility of collision.
 Vulnerable time for CSMA is the max propagation time, Tp needed for a
signal to propagate from one end of the medium to the other.
 When a station sends a frame, and any other station tries to send during
this time it leads to collision.
 But if the first bit of frame reaches the end of medium, every other station
will already have heard the bit and will refrain from sending.
 Types of CSMA Protocols

 Different CSMA protocols determine:

- What should a station do if the channel is busy?

- What should a station do if the channel is idle?

1. 1-persistence method
2. Non-persistence method

3. P-persistence method
 1-persistence method

 To avoid idle channel time, 1-persistent protocol is used

 Station wishing to transmit listens to the medium:
 If medium is idle, transmit immediately;
 If medium is busy, continuously listen until medium becomes idle
& then transmit immediately with probability 1
 Performance
 1-persistent stations are selfish
 If two or more stations becomes ready at the same time, collision
guaranteed

***Chance of collision is high

 Non-persistence method

 A station with frames to be sent, should sense the medium

1. If medium is idle, transmit
2. If medium is busy, (backoff) wait a random amount of time and repeat
1
 Non-persistent stations are deferential (respect others)
 Performance:
 Random delays reduces probability of collisions because two stations with
data to be transmitted will wait for different amount of times.
 Bandwidth is wasted, if waiting time (backoff ) is large because medium
will remain idle following end of transmission even if one or more stations
have frames to send.
P-persistence method
 Time is divided into slots where each
time slot typically equals maximum
propagation time.
 Station wishing to transmit listens to
the medium:
1. If medium is idle,
 transmit with probability (p), OR
 wait one time slot with
probability (1 – p), then repeat 1.
2. If medium is busy, continuously
listen until idle and repeat step 1
 Performance:
 Reduces the possibility of
collisions like non-persistent.
 Reduces channel idle time like
1-persistent.
 CSMA/CD Protocol
 CSMA (all previous methods) has an inefficiency:

 If a collision has occurred, the channel is unstable until colliding

packets have been fully transmitted.

 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

overcomes this as follows:

 While transmitting, the sender is listening to medium for collisions.

 Sender stops transmission if collision has occurred, reducing channel

wastage.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access /Collision Detection
 “Listen-while-talk” protocol. A host listens even while it is transmitting,

and if a collision is detected, stops transmitting.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access /Collision Detection
 Use one of the CSMA persistence algorithm (non-persistent, 1-
persistent, p-persistent) for transmission.

 If a collision is detected by a station during its transmission then it

should do the following:
- Abort transmission and
- Transmit a jam signal (48 bit) to notify other stations of collision so
that they will discard the transmitted frame also to make sure that
the collision signal will stay until detected by the farthest station.
- After sending the jam signal, back off (wait) for a random amount of
time, then
- Transmit the frame again.
 Flow diagram for CSMA/CD

Jamming signal enforces the collision in case other stations have not yet
sensed the collision.
 Collision Detection
 How the station detects a collision?
 Detecting voltage level on the line
 Detecting energy level
 Detecting simultaneous transmissions and receptions
 Energy in channel can have three values: zero, normal, and abnormal.
 At zero level, the channel is idle.
 At the normal level, a station has successfully captured the channel and is
sending its frame.
 At the abnormal level, there is a collision and the level of the energy is
twice the normal level.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access /Collision Avoidance
 In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the
timer of the contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when
the channel becomes idle.
 CSMA/CA was mostly intended for use in wireless networks.

IFS (Inter-frame Spaces) are waiting periods between transmission of frames.

Contention window – It is the amount of time divided into slots.
Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

Contention window
size is 2K-1

After each slot:

- If idle, continue
- If busy, stop and continue
when idle
 Controlled Access
 In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station
has the right to send.
 A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
 Provides in order access to shared medium so that every station has chance
to transfer (fair protocol).
 Eliminates collision completely.
 Controlled Access methods
 Reservation
 Polling
 Token Passing
 Reservation Access Method
 A station needs to make a reservation before sending data
 Time is divided into intervals
 A reservation frame precedes each time interval
 Number of stations and number of mini-slots in the reservation frame
are equal
 Each time slot belongs to a particular station
 If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N mini-slots in the
reservation frame
 Polling Access Method
 Devices are designated as a Primary station and Secondary station
 All data exchange must go through the primary station
 Primary station controls the link and initiates the session; the secondary
station follow its instructions
Two functions: Poll and Select
 Poll: If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondary if they have
anything to send
 Select: If the primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready
to receive data
Select function

• The Select function is used

when the primary has
frames to send

• The primary creates and

transmits a select (SEL)
frame

• SEL alerts the secondary for

the upcoming transmission

• The primary waits for ACK

to send the data
Poll function
 When the primary is ready to
receive data, it must ask Poll
signal to each device in turn if it
has anything to send.

 When the first secondary is

approached, it responds either
with a NAK frame if it has nothing
to send or with data if it does.

 If the response is NAK, the

primary Polls the next secondary.

 If it receives data, it sends ACK

frame.
 Token Passing

 In the Token-Passing, the stations are organized in a logical ring

 For each station there is a predecessor and a successor

 Predecessor is the station which is logically before the station in the ring

 Successor is the station which is logically after the station in the ring

 Current station is the one that is accessing the channel currently

 How is the right to access the channel passed from one station to
another?
 Token Passing (Contd.)
 Station is authorized to send data when it receives a special packet called
a token.
 Stations are arranged around a ring.
 When no data is being sent, a token circulates the ring.
 If a station needs to send data, it waits for the token.
 The station captures the token and sends one or more frames (as long as it
has frames to send or the allocated time has not expired), and finally it
releases the token to be used by next station (successor).
 The maximum time any station can hold the token is limited.
 Since there is only one token, only one station transmits at a time, and
collisions never occur.
 Token Passing (Contd.)
Token management is needed for this access method:

 Stations must be limited in the time they can have possession of the token.

 The token must be monitored to ensure it has not been lost or destroyed
(if the station that is holding the token fails, the token will disappear from
the network).

 Assign priorities to the stations, to make low-priority stations release the

token to high priority stations.

 Stations do not have to be physically connected in a ring; the ring can be a

logical one.
Token-Passing Procedure
Logical ring and Physical topology in Token-Passing
access method
 Channelization
 Channelization is a multiple access method in which the available
bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency or through code,
between different stations.
 Three methods:
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands
that are separated by guard bands
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 The bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between
different stations
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 One channel carries all transmissions simultaneously
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.
 Each station is allocated a band to send its data.
 To prevent station interferences, the allocated bands are separated
from one another by small guard bands.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 In TDMA, the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time.
 Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send date.
 Achieving synchronization between different stations is the main
problem. This can be achieved by introducing sync bits at the
beginning of each slot.
 The concept of guard times is present in TDMA.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 In CDMA, one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
 In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions at the same time.
 Consider the idea
• Let us assume, we have 4 stations 1, 2, 3, & 4 connected to same
channel. The data from station 1 is d1, from station 2 is d2, & so on.
The code assigned to the station 1 is c1, to the station 2 is c2, & so on.
• We assume that the assigned codes have two properties:
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (i.e., the no. of
stations)

 With the above two properties taken into consideration, let us

see how the 4 stations can send data using the common channel.
Simple idea of communication with code
 Any station that wants to receive data from one of the other 3 stations,
it multiplies the data on the channel by the code of the sender.
 For example, stations 3 and 4 are talking to each other. Station 4 wants
to hear what station 3 is saying. It multiplies the data on the channel by
c3.
 Data = (d1⋅ c1 + d2 ⋅ c2 + d3 ⋅ c3 + d4 ⋅ c4) ⋅ c3
= d1⋅ c1⋅ c3 + d2 ⋅ c2 ⋅ c3 + d3 ⋅ c3 ⋅ c3 +d4 ⋅ c4 ⋅ c3
= 4 × d3
 Chip Sequences
 Each station is assigned a unique chip sequence

 Chip sequences are orthogonal sequences

 Inner product of any pair must be zero
 With N stations, sequences must have the following properties:
 They are of length N
 Their self inner product is always N

 Data Representation
Transmission in CDMA
CDMA Encoding
Signal Created by CDMA
CDMA Decoding
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard
• In response to lacking standards, IEEE developed the first
internationally recognized wireless LAN standard – IEEE 802.11
• IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after seven years of work
• Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to Physical and Data Link Layers
• Benefits:
 Appliance Interoperability
 Fast Product Development
 Stable Future Migration
 Price Reductions
 The 802.11 standard takes into account the following significant
differences between wireless and wired LANs:
Power Management
Security
Bandwidth
 IEEE 802.11 Terminology
 Access Point (AP): A station that provides access to the DS.
 Basic Service Set (BSS): An ad-hoc self-contained network with
station-to-station traffic flowing directly, receiving data transmitted by
another station, and only filtering traffic based on the MAC address of
the receiver.
 A set of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central
base station, known as the access point (AP).
 Distribution System (DS): A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs
to create an ESS.
 DS is implementation-independent. It can be a wired 802.3
Ethernet LAN, 802.4 token bus, 802.5 token ring or another 802.11
medium.
 Extended Service Set (ESS):Two or more BSS interconnected by DS
 Extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and
stationary.
 The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary
stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
 IEEE 802.11 – MAC Sublayer
 IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers:
 The Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) and the Point
Coordination Function (PCF)

MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard

Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)

 It is one of the 2 protocols defined by IEEE at MAC sublayer.

 DCF uses CSMA/CA.
 Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMA/CD because it is a costly
affair and due to increased bandwidth requirements.
 CSMA/CA and NAV

DIFS – Distributed Interframe Space

RTS – Request To Send
SIFS – Short Interframe Space
CTS – Clear To Send
NAV – Network Allocation Vector
 Point Coordination Function (PCF)
 The Point Coordination Function (PCF) is an optional access
method that can be implemented in an infrastructure network.
 It is implemented on top of the DCF and is mostly for time-sensitive
transmission.
 PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.
 The Access Point (AP) performs polling for stations that are capable
of being polled. The stations are polled one after another, sending
any data they have to the AP.
 Frame Format

The MAC layer frame consists of nine fields.

Frame Control (FC): The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of
frame and some control information.
Subfields in FC field
 Frame Format (Contd.)
 D (Duration):
 In all frames types (except in one type), this field defines the value
of Network Allocation Vector (NAV).
 In one control frame only, this field defines the ID of the frame.

 Addresses:
 There are 4 address fields, each 6 bytes long.
 The meaning of each address field depends on the value of To DS
and From DS subfields.

 Sequence Control:
 This field defines the sequence number of the frame to be used in
flow control.
 Frame Format (Contd.)

 Frame body:
 This field, which ranges between 0 and 2312 bytes, contains
information based on the type and the subtype defined in the FC field.

 FCS:
 The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error detection
sequence.
 Frame Types
 IEEE 802.11 has 3 categories of frames: Management frames, Control
frames, Data frames.
 Management frames: Management frames are used for the initial
communication between stations and access points.
 Control frames: Control frames are used for accessing the channel
and acknowledging frames.

Values of subfields in
control frames

Data Frames: Data frames are used for carrying data and control
information.
 Switched Network
 With a large number of end systems it is not practical to connect each pair.
 In large networks, we need some means to allow one-to-one
communication between any two nodes.

 In LANs, this is achieved using one of three methods:

 Direct point-to-point connection (mesh)
 Via central controller (star)
 Connection to common bus in a multipoint configuration (bus/hub)

 These are ruled out for large networks either because of the increased
distance or devices.

 The solution is a SWITCHED NETWORK.

 Switched Network
 Consists of a series of interlinked nodes called SWITCHES.
 Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.
Switched Networks
 Circuit Switched Network
 A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by
physical links.

 A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or

more links. The dedicated path is called a circuit-switched connection or
circuit.

 Each link is normally divided into

‘n’ channels by using FDM or TDM.

 Each connection uses only one

dedicated channel on each link.

 The link can be permanent (leased

line) or temporary (telephone).
 Circuit Switched Network

 Circuit switching takes place at PHYSICAL LAYER.

 Reservation of resources must be made during set up phase that

remains dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until tear
down phase.

 Such as bandwidth in FDM and time slot in TDM.

 Data transferred is not packetized, but it is a continuous flow.

 No addressing is involved during data transfer. Switches route the data

based on the occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM).
 Circuit Switch: Phases
3 phase management:
 Setup phase:
 A setup request moves from sender to receiver that includes the address
of the destination to the nearest switch. This switch finds a channel
between itself and the switch close to the destination
 An acknowledgment packet is returned from destination and then
connection is established.

 Data transfer phase:

 Two parties can transfer data.

 Tear-down phase:
 When the last of the data arrives at the destination, the tear-down
begins where the resources are released.
 “Busy Signal” if capacity for a circuit not available.
Circuit Switch - Telephone call between two users
 Delay in a circuit-switched network
 Once the connection is established, there is minimal delay for data
between the stations.

 A dedicated path exists between sender and receiver.

 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Delay in this type of network is minimal.

o Circuit switched networks are not as efficient as the other two

networks because
o Resources are allocated during entire session of connection that

are unavailable to other connections.

 Datagram Networks
 Messages sent through packet switched network are divided into packets
of fixed or variable size. The size depends on the protocol and network.

 Datagram networks are referred to as connectionless (switch has no

information about the connection state). A device known as a Router (L-3
switch) creates a connectionless network.

 Connectionless implies that the path between sender and receiver is not
dedicated. Hence no resource allocation (bandwidth, processing time).
Resources are allocated on demand, i.e., on FCFS.

 Datagram switching is done at NETWORK LAYER. No setup or tear

down phases.
Header Data Trailer
 Datagram's
 A single message is divided into datagram's (packet) and individual
datagram's are not treated as a single stream of data even if they
belong to the same message.

 Datagram's from one message can take different paths to the

destination and can arrive out of order.

 Switch (Routers) in a datagram network uses a database (routing

table) that is based on destination address. The routing table directs
the datagram's towards the final destination.
 Datagram network with four routers
• All packets belong to the
message from same source but
travel in different paths to
reach destination either
because the links involved are
busy carrying packets from
other sources or because of
lack of necessary bandwidth.

• This causes packets to arrive

out of order with different
delays.

• Packets may also be dropped

or lost because of lack of
resources.
 Routing table in a datagram network
 Each router has a routing table which is based on the destination
address.
 Routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.
Destination address and corresponding forwarding output ports are
recorded in the table.
 The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram
network remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
 When router receives the packet, destination address is examined.
Routing table is consulted to find the corresponding port through
which packet should be forwarded.
 Efficiency is better than circuit switching and greater delay
compared to virtual network.

 Switching in the Internet is done by using the Datagram approach

at the network layer.
 Virtual Circuit Network
 VCN is a combination of a datagram and circuit network that is
implemented at the DATA LINK LAYER. It has some characteristics of
both.
 As in circuit switched network it involves 3 phases for the transmission
to take place.
 VC setup and acknowledgement
- Switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit using their addresses
 Data transfer
 Tear-down
- Source and destination inform the switches to delete the
corresponding entry
 Resources can be allocated during setup phase, as in circuit network
or on demand, as in datagram network.
 Data is transferred as packets and all are sent along a pre-established
path (virtual circuit).
 Virtual Circuit Network

• The network has switches that allow traffic from sources to

destinations.
• Source or destination can be packet switch, bridge or any other
device that connects other networks.
 Virtual Circuit Network
 In VCN, two types of addressing are involved:
 Global – unique in the scope of network and is used only to create VCI.
 Virtual circuit identifier – small number used for the data transfer and has only switch
scope. Every packet contain address information (VCI), which is not host destination
address.
 In VC networks, the route is setup in the connection establishment phase. During the setup,
source and destination use global address to help switches make table entries for connection.
Each router assigns a VC number (VC#) to the virtual circuit that can be different for each hop
& is written into the packet headers. In tear down phase switches are informed to delete the
corresponding entries.
 Each VC occupies routing table entries. When a frame arrives at a switch it has one VCI and
when it leaves it has different VCI.
 The VCI directs the datagram towards its
final destination.
Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network
Set up request in VCN
 Setup Frame
 “A” sends setup frame to switch 1.

 Switch 1 receives the request and gets to know that it should go out

through Port 3 and creates an entry for this virtual circuit. It fills only
three of the four columns and the outgoing VCI will be found during the
acknowledgement step.
 It then forwards to switch 2 and the same events happen here as at switch

1. In this case, incoming port(1), incoming VCI(66) and outgoing port(2)

 Switch 3 also receives setup request and the same process continues

 Now, “B” receives setup frame and if it is ready to receive frames from “A”,

it assigns VCI to incoming frames from “A”, i.e., 77. This VCI lets
destination know that frames come from “A” and not from other sources.
Set up Acknowledgement in VCN
 Acknowledgement Frame

 Acknowledgement frame completes the entries in the switch table.

 Acknowledgement from B to switch 3 carries global source and

destination address so the switch knows which entry in the table is to

be completed. It also carries VCI 77 chosen by the destination as the
incoming VCI for frames from A.
 Switch 3 sends ACK to switch 2 that contains its incoming VCI and

switch 2 sends ACK to switch 1 that contains its incoming VCI.

 Finally switch 1 sends an acknowledgement to source A that contains

its incoming VCI.

 Data transfer and Tear down process

After sending all frames, a special frame called Tear Down Request is sent to
end the connection. “B” responds with a tear down confirmation frame. All
switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
 Delay in a Virtual Circuit Network

Total Delay – Setup delay + Tear down delay + Propagation time +

Transmission time
If resources allocated during setup, no wait time for packets.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Resource reservation can be made during the setup or can be made on

demand during data transfer phase.

 In VCN, all the packets that belong to the same source and destination
travel the same path, but packet may arrive at the destination with
different delays if resource allocation is on demand.
 Comparison
Datagram Packet VC Packet
Circuit Switching Switching Switching
 Dedicated transmission  No dedicated  No dedicated
path transmission path transmission path
 Continuous  Transmission of  Transmission of
transmission packets packets
 Path stays fixed for
 Route of each packet  Path stays fixed for
is independent entire connection
entire connection

 No setup delay  Call setup delay
Call setup delay
 Transmission delay  Transmission delay
 Negligible transmission for each packet for each packet
delay
 Queueing delays at  Queueing delays at
 No queuing delay switches switches
 Busy signal overloaded  Delays increase in  Delays increase in
network overloaded networks overloaded networks
 Fixed bandwidth for  Bandwidth is shared  Bandwidth is shared
each circuit by all packets by all packets
 No overhead after call  Overhead in each  Overhead in each
setup packet packet