Carbohydrate Nursing L2-2

Conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl CoA
• Pyruvate is in cytosol
• Acetyl CoA formation occurs in mitochondria
• So, pyruvate is transported into mitochondria.
• Here, this reaction is catalysed by a multi-enzyme

complex PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE
complex.
PDH complex
5-Coenzymes are required by PDH Complex
Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
Lipoamide
FAD
NAD+
CoASH
CITRIC ACID CYCLE/
KREB’S CYCLE/
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID (TCA) CYCLE
Final common pathway
Acetyl-CoA and other intermediates derived from all the
three metabolic fuels i.e. carbohydrates, proteins &
fats are finally and completely oxidized in the cycle.
• Site- Mitochondrial matrix

• Aerobic cycle
• ATP Production
Vitamins required for TCA
•Thiamin -TPP
•Riboflavin-FAD
•Niacin –NAD
•Pantothenic acid- CoASH
•Lipoic acid
• Thus, TOTAL ATP formed when 2 pyruvates are
oxidised via TCA cycle = 25
• Aerobic glycolysis and forms 2 pyruvates; ATP

produced are = 7
• So, complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose

gives 25+7=32 ATP
Regulation of citric acid cycle
• Regulation occurs at two stages:
 PDH enzyme complex
TCA cycle
At the level of citric acid cycle catalysed by
following 3 enzymes:
Citrate synthase
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
α- ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
• High ratios of:
ATP/ADP or
NADH/NAD
• Product
inhibition
Long chain FA
OAA
• Falling or low
ratios:
ATP/ADP or
NADH/NAD
• Ca2+
1) IT IS THE
FINAL
COMMON
PATHWAY
2). ROLE IN AMINO
ACID METABOLISM
& gLUCONEOGENESIS
See Cyst Through His Glasses
TAP
PFT
VIM
Hit GAP
3). Role in fatty acid
synthesis
4). AMPHIBOLIC ROLE OF
TCA cycle
both Catabolic and Anabolic

Pentose Phosphate pathway/
Hexose Monophosphate shunt
Functions
• Generation of NADPH
 Reductive syntheses of fatty acids, steroids, amino acids via
glutamate dehydrogenase.
Production of reduced glutathione in erythrocytes and other

cells.
• Production of ribose residues for nucleotide and nucleic acid

synthesis.
• Active in liver, adipose tissue, lactating mammary gland adrenal

cortex, thyroid, testes, and erythrocytes.
• Occurs in the cytosol in two phases:
 Oxidative
• Non-reversible phase
• Synthesis of NADPH
•
 Non-oxidative
• Reversible phase
• Synthesis of ribose
• NADP+, not NAD +, is used as hydrogen acceptor

Oxidative pathway
Regulatory enzyme
O O Phosphogluconate
1C Dehydrogenase
HC OH 1CH 2 OH
2 NADP + NADPH + H +
HO 3CH C O
2
HC OH HC OH
4 3
HC OH CO 2 HC OH
5 4
CH 2 OPO 3 2 CH 2 OPO 3 2
6 5
6-phosphogluconate ribulose-5-phosphate
Non Oxidative pathway
+
2 NADP 2 NADPH + CO2
glucose-6-P ribulose-5-P ribose-5-P
fructose-6-P, &
glyceraldehyde-3-P
to Glycolysis
for production of ATP
Pentose Phosphate Pathway producing
NADPH and ATP
Role of NADPH and glutathione in protecting
cells against ROS
Se
Physiological significance of PPP
1) NADPH generation
2) Ribose synthesis
3) Free radical scavenging
4) Prevention of Met-hemoglobinemia: NADPH is reqd to keep Fe in
reduced state.
Galactose Metabolism
• Galactose is not dietary essential.
• Galactose is needed for the synthesis of lactose, glycolipids,

proteoglycans and glycoproteins
Galactosemia clinical pictures
Fructose metabolism
• Diets containing large amounts of sucrose (a disaccharide of
glucose and fructose) provide fructose as a major source of
energy.
• Sucrose is present in sugarcane, high-fructose corn syrups and

honey.
Fructose metabolism- Liver
Glycogenesis
• Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
• It mainly occurs in muscle and liver.
• Muscle glycogen provides a readily available source of glucose
for glycolysis within the muscle itself.
• Liver glycogen functions to store and export glucose to
maintain blood glucose between meals.
Glycogenolysis
•  The degradation of stored glycogen in liver & muscle

constitutes glycogenolysis
•  The synthesis & degradation of glycogen are not
reversible.
•  An independent set of enzymes present in the cytosol carry
out glycogenolysis
•  Glycogen is degraded by breaking ɑ-l,4 & ɑ-1,6-
Glycosidic bonds.
• The ɑ-1,4-glycosidic bonds (from the non-reducing ends) are cleaved
sequentially by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to yield glucose 1–
phosphate.
• The branches of glycogen are cleaved by debranching enzyme yielding

glucose.
• Through the combined action of glycogen phosphorylase & debranching

enzyme, glucose 1-phosphate & free glucose.

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Conversion of pyruvate to

• So, pyruvate is transported into mitochondria.

• Here, this reaction is catalysed by a multi-enzyme

• Site- Mitochondrial matrix

•Pantothenic acid- CoASH

• Aerobic glycolysis and forms 2 pyruvates; ATP

• So, complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose

 PDH enzyme complex

both Catabolic and Anabolic

Production of reduced glutathione in erythrocytes and other

• Production of ribose residues for nucleotide and nucleic acid

• Active in liver, adipose tissue, lactating mammary gland adrenal

• NADP+, not NAD +, is used as hydrogen acceptor

• Galactose is needed for the synthesis of lactose, glycolipids,

• Sucrose is present in sugarcane, high-fructose corn syrups and

•  The degradation of stored glycogen in liver & muscle

• The branches of glycogen are cleaved by debranching enzyme yielding

• Through the combined action of glycogen phosphorylase & debranching

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