Chapter 9

Linear Momentum and Collisions

Momentum Analysis Models

Force and acceleration are related by Newton’s second law.

When force and acceleration vary by time, the situation can be
very complicated.
The techniques developed in this chapter will enable you to
understand and analyze these situations in a simple way.
Will develop momentum versions of analysis models for isolated
and non-isolated systems
These models are especially useful for treating problems that
involve collisions and for analyzing rocket propulsion.

Introduction
Thought Experiment

An archer stands on frictionless ice and fires an arrow. What is the

archer’s velocity after firing the arrow?
 Motion models such as a particle under constant acceleration cannot
be used.
 No information about the acceleration of the arrow

 Model of a particle under constant force cannot be used.

 No information about forces involved

 Energy models cannot be used.

 No information about the work or the energy (energies) involved

A new quantity is needed – linear momentum.

Section 9.1
Linear Momentum
The linear momentum of a particle or an object that can be modeled as
a particle of mass m moving with a velocity is defined to be the product
of the mass and velocity:

Linear momentum is a vector quantity.

 Its direction is the same as the direction of the velocity.
The SI units of momentum are kg · m / s.
Momentum can be expressed in component form:
px = mvx py = mvy pz = mvz

Section 9.1
Momentum and Kinetic Energy

Momentum and kinetic energy both involve mass and velocity.

There are major differences between them:
 Kinetic energy is a scalar and momentum is a vector.
 Kinetic energy can be transformed to other types of energy.
Analysis models based on momentum are separate from those
based on energy.
This difference allows an independent tool to use in solving
problems.

Section 9.1
Newton’s Second Law and Momentum
Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate the momentum of a
particle to the resultant force acting on it.

with constant mass.

The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is
equal to the net force acting on the particle.
 This is the form in which Newton presented the Second Law.
 It is a more general form than the one we used previously.
 This form also allows for mass changes.

Section 9.1
Conservation of Linear Momentum

Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system

interact, the total momentum of the system remains
constant.
 The momentum of the system is conserved, not
necessarily the momentum of an individual particle.
 Avoid applying conservation of momentum to a single particle.

 This also tells us that the total momentum of an isolated

system equals its initial momentum.

Section 9.2
Conservation of Momentum, 2

Conservation of momentum can be expressed mathematically in various

ways:   
p = p + p = constant
total
 1  2 
p1i + p2i = p1f + p2f
In component form, the total momenta in each direction are independently
conserved.
p1ix + p2ix = p1fx + p2fx p1iy + p2iy = p1fy+ p2fy p1iz + p2iz = p1fz + p2fz

Conservation of momentum can be applied to systems with any number of

particles.
The momentum version of the isolated system model states whenever two
or more particles in an isolated system interact, the total momentum of the
system remains constant.
Section 9.2
Forces and Conservation of Momentum

In conservation of momentum, there is no statement concerning

the types of forces acting on the particles of the system.
The forces are not specified as conservative or non-conservative.
There is no indication if the forces are constant or not.
The only requirement is that the forces must be internal to the
system.
 This gives a hint about the power of this new model.

Section 9.2
Conservation of Momentum, Archer Example Revisited

The archer is standing on a

frictionless surface (ice).
Approaches:
 Motion – no
 No information about velocities,
etc.
 Newton’s Second Law – no
 No information about F or a
 Energy approach – no
 No information about work or
energy
 Momentum – yes

Section 9.2
Impulse and Momentum
The momentum of a system changes if a net force from the environment
acts on the system.
For momentum considerations, a system is non-isolated if a net force
acts on the system for a time interval. 
 dp
From Newton’s Second Law, F
   dt
Solving for dp gives dp   Fdt
Integrating to find the change in momentum over some time interval.
   tf  
p  pf  p i   Fdt  I
ti

The integral is called the impulse, I , of the force acting on an object over
t.

Section 9.3
Impulse-Momentum Theorem
This equation expresses the impulse-momentum theorem: The
change in the momentum of a particle is equal to the impulse of the new
force acting on the particle. 

p  I
 This is equivalent to Newton’s Second Law.
 This is identical in form to the conservation of energy equation.
 This is the most general statement of the principle of conservation of
momentum and is called the conservation of momentum equation.
 This form applies to non-isolated systems.
 This is the mathematical statement of the non-isolated system
(momentum) model.

Section 9.3
More About Impulse

Impulse is a vector quantity.

The magnitude of the impulse is
equal to the area under the force-
time curve.
 The force may vary with time.
Dimensions of impulse are ML / T
Impulse is not a property of the
particle, but a measure of the
change in momentum of the
particle.

Section 9.3
Impulse, Final

The impulse can also be found by

using the time averaged force.
 
I   Ft
This would give the same impulse
as the time-varying force does.

Section 9.3
Impulse Approximation
In many cases, one force acting on a particle acts for a short time,
but is much greater than any other force present.
When using the Impulse Approximation, we will assume this is
true.
 Especially useful in analyzing collisions
The force will be called the impulsive force.
The particle is assumed to move very little during the collision.
 
p i and pf represent the momenta immediately before and after
the collision.

Section 9.3
Impulse-Momentum: Crash Test Example
Conceptualize
 The collision time is short.
 We can image the car being brought
to rest very rapidly and then moving
back in the opposite direction with a
reduced speed.
Categorize
 Assume net force exerted on the car
by wall and friction with the ground
is large compared with other forces.
 Gravitational and normal forces are
perpendicular and so do not effect
the horizontal momentum.
Collisions – Characteristics

The term collision represents an event during which two

particles come close to each other and interact by
means of forces.
 May involve physical contact, but must be generalized to
include cases with interaction without physical contact
The interaction forces are assumed to be much greater than
any external forces present.
 This means the impulse approximation can be used.

Section 9.4
Collisions – Example 1

Collisions may be the result of

direct contact.
The impulsive forces may vary in
time in complicated ways.
 This force is internal to the
system.
 Observe the variations in the
active figure.
Momentum is conserved.
Collisions – Example 2

The collision need not include

physical contact between the
objects.
There are still forces between the
particles.
This type of collision can be
analyzed in the same way as
those that include physical
contact.

Section 9.4
Types of Collisions

Section 9.4
Collisions, cont.

In an inelastic collision, some kinetic energy is lost, but the objects

do not stick together.
Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are limiting cases, most
actual collisions fall in between these two types .
Momentum is conserved in all collisions

Section 9.4
Perfectly Inelastic Collisions

Momentum of an isolated system is

conserved in any collision, so the total
momentum before the collision is equal
to the total momentum of the composite
system after the collision.
Since the objects stick together, they
share the same velocity after the
collision.
  
m1v1i  m2 v 2 i   m1  m2  vf

Section 9.4
 Elastic Collisions

Both momentum and kinetic

energy are conserved.
   
m1v1i  m2 v 2i  m1v1f  m2 v 2f
1 1 1 1
m1v1i  m2 v 2i  m1v1f  m2v 22f
2 2 2

2 2 2 2
Typically, there are two
unknowns to solve for and so
you need two equations.

Section 9.4
Elastic Collisions, cont.
The kinetic energy equation can be difficult to use.
With some algebraic manipulation, a different equation can be used.

v1i – v2i = v1f + v2f

This equation, along with conservation of momentum, can be used to
solve for the two unknowns.
 It can only be used with a one-dimensional, elastic collision
between two objects.
 Using this equation eliminates the need for using an equation with
quadratic terms (from the kinetic energy equation).
Remember to use the appropriate signs for all velocities.

Section 9.4
Elastic Collisions, final

Example of some special cases:

m1 = m2 (the particles exchange velocities)

Section 9.4
Example: Stress Reliever

Conceptualize
 Imagine one ball coming in from the
left and two balls exiting from the
right.
 Is this possible?
Categorize
 Due to shortness of time, the
impulse approximation can be
used.
 Categorize the system as isolated
in terms of both momentum and
energy.
 Elastic collisions
Example: Stress Reliever, cont.
Analyze
 Check to see if momentum is conserved.
 It is
 Check to see if kinetic energy is conserved.
 It is not
 Therefore, the collision couldn’t be elastic.
Finalize
 Having two balls exit was not possible if only one ball is released.

Section 9.4
Example: Stress Reliever, final

For a collision to actually occur,

both momentum and kinetic energy
must be conserved.
 One way to do so is with equal
numbers of balls released and
exiting.
 Another way is to have some of
the balls taped together so they
move as one object.

Section 9.4
Collision Example – Ballistic Pendulum

Section 9.4
Ballistic Pendulum, cont.

Section 9.4
Two-Dimensional Collisions

The momentum is conserved in all directions.

Use subscripts for
 Identifying the object
 Indicating initial or final values
 The velocity components
If the collision is elastic, use conservation of kinetic energy as a
second equation.
 Remember, the simpler equation can only be used for one-
dimensional situations.

Section 9.5
Two-Dimensional Collision, example

Particle 1 is moving at velocity and particle 2 is at rest.

In the x-direction, the initial momentum is m1v1i.

In the y-direction, the initial momentum is 0.

Two-Dimensional Collision, example cont.

After the collision, the momentum in the x-

direction is m1v1f cos m2v2f cos

After the collision, the momentum in the y-

direction is m1v1f sin m2v2f sin

If the collision is elastic, apply the kinetic

energy equation.
Two-Dimensional Collision Example
Conceptualize
 See picture
 Choose East to be the positive x-
direction and North to be the positive
y-direction.
Categorize
 Ignore friction
 Model the vehicles as particles.
 Model the system as isolated in
terms of momentum.
 The collision is perfectly inelastic.
 The vehicles stick together.
The Center of Mass

There is a special point in a system or object, called the center of

mass, that moves as if all of the mass of the system is
concentrated at that point.
The system will move as if an external force were applied to a
single particle of mass M located at the center of mass.
 M is the total mass of the system.
This behavior is independent of other motion, such as rotation or
vibration, or deformation of the system.
 This is the particle model.

Section 9.6
Center of Mass, Coordinates
m x i i m y i i
The coordinates of the center of mass are xCM  i
y CM  i
M M
m z i i
zCM  i
M
 M is the total mass of the system.
Center of Mass, Extended Object

Similar analysis can be done for

an extended object.
Consider the extended object as
a system containing a large
number of small mass elements.
Since separation between the
elements is very small, it can be
considered to have a constant
mass distribution.

Section 9.6
Center of Mass, position
The center of mass
 in three dimensions can be located by its
position vector, rCM .
 For a system of particles,
 1 
rCM 
M
 mi ri
i

 is the position of the ith particle, defined by

ri  xi ˆi  y i ˆj  zi kˆ
 For an extended object,
 1 
rCM   r dm
M
Section 9.6
Center of Mass, Symmetric Object

The center of mass of any symmetric object of uniform

density lies on an axis of symmetry and on any plane of
symmetry.

Section 9.6
Center of Gravity

Each small mass element of an extended object is acted upon by

the gravitational force.
The net effect of all these forces is equivalent to the effect of a
single force Mg acting through a point called the center of
gravity.

 If g is constant over the mass distribution, the center of gravity
coincides with the center of mass.

Section 9.6
Finding Center of Gravity, Irregularly Shaped Object

Suspend the object from one point.

Then, suspend from another point.
The intersection of the resulting
lines is the center of gravity and half
way through the thickness of the
wrench.

Section 9.6
Center of Mass, Rod

Conceptualize
 Find the center of mass of a rod of mass M and length L.
 The location is on the x-axis (or yCM = zCM = 0)

Categorize
 Analysis problem
Analyze
 Use equation for xcm
 xCM = L / 2
Motion of a System of Particles

Assume the total mass, M, of the system remains constant.

We can describe the motion of the system in terms of the velocity
and acceleration of the center of mass of the system.
We can also describe the momentum of the system and Newton’s
Second Law for the system.

Section 9.7
Velocity and Momentum of a System of Particles

The velocity of the center of mass of a system of particles is


 dr 1 
vCM  CM   mi v i
dt M i
The momentum can be expressed as
   
M vCM   mi v i   pi  ptot
i i

The total linear momentum of the system equals the total mass
multiplied by the velocity of the center of mass.

Section 9.7
Acceleration and Force in a System of Particles

The acceleration of the center of mass can be found by

differentiating the velocity with respect to time.

 dvCM 1 
aCM    mi a i
dt M i
The acceleration can be related to a force.

 
M a CM   Fi
i

If we sum over all the internal force vectors, they cancel in pairs
and the net force on the system is caused only by the external
forces.
Section 9.7
 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles

Since the only forces are external, the net external force equals
the total mass of the system multiplied by the acceleration of the
center of mass:  
 F ext  MaCM

The center of mass of a system of particles of combined mass M

moves like an equivalent particle of mass M would move under
the influence of the net external force on the system.

Section 9.7
Impulse and Momentum of a System of Particles

The impulse imparted to the system by external forces is

   
  Fext dt  M  dvCM  ptot  I
The total linear momentum of a system of particles is
conserved if no net external force is acting on the system.
  
M vCM  ptot  constant when  Fext  0
For an isolated system of particles, both the total momentum
and the velocity of the center of mass are constant in time.
 This is a generalization of the isolated system
(momentum) model for a many-particle system.
Section 9.7
Motion of the Center of Mass, Example

A projectile is fired into the air and

suddenly explodes.
With no explosion, the projectile
would follow the dotted line.
After the explosion, the center of
mass of the fragments still follows
the dotted line, the same parabolic
path the projectile would have
followed with no explosion.
Deformable Systems

To analyze the motion of a deformable system, use

Conservation of Energy and the Impulse-Momentum Theorem.

Esystem   T  K  U  0
   
ptot  I  mv   Fext dt

 If the force is constant, the integral can be easily evaluated.

Section 9.8
Deformable System (Spring) Example

Conceptualize
 See figure
 Push on left block, it moves
to right, spring compresses.
 At any given time, the blocks
are generally moving with
different velocities.
 After the force is removed,
the blocks oscillate back and
forth with respect to the
center of mass.
Spring Example, cont.
Categorize
 Non isolated system in terms of momentum and energy.
 Work is being done on it by the applied force.
 It is a deformable system.
 The applied force is constant, so the acceleration of the center of
mass is constant.
 Model as a particle under constant acceleration.
Analyze
 Apply impulse-momentum
 Solve for vcm

Section 9.8
Spring Example, final
Analyze, cont.
 Find energies
Finalize
 Answers do not depend on spring length, spring constant, or
time interval.

Section 9.8
Rocket Propulsion
The initial mass of the rocket plus all
its fuel is M + m at time ti and
speed v.
The initial momentum of the system
is
 
pi = (M + m)v
At some time t + t, the rocket’s
mass has been reduced to M and an
amount of fuel, m has been
ejected.
The rocket’s speed has increased by
v.
Rocket Propulsion
The basic equation for rocket propulsion is

 Mi 
v f  v i  v e ln  
 Mf 
The increase in rocket speed is proportional to the speed of the escape
gases (ve).
 So, the exhaust speed should be very high.
The increase in rocket speed is also proportional to the natural log of the
ratio Mi/Mf.
 So, the ratio should be as high as possible, meaning the mass of the
rocket should be as small as possible and it should carry as much fuel
as possible.
Thrust

The thrust on the rocket is the force exerted on it by the

ejected exhaust gases.
dv dM
thrust  M  ve
dt dt

The thrust increases as the exhaust speed increases.

The thrust increases as the rate of change of mass
increases.
 The rate of change of the mass is called the burn rate.

Section 9.9
Problem Solving Summary – Non-isolated System

If a system interacts with its

environment in the sense that
there is an external force on
the system, use the impulse-
momentum theorem.
Problem Solving Summary – Isolated System

If there are no external forces, the

principle of conservation of linear
momentum indicates that the total
momentum of an isolated system
is conserved regardless of the
nature of the forces between the
members of the system.
The system may be isolated in
terms of momentum but non-
isolated in terms of energy.