CH-2, Stress & Strain

CHAPTER TWO 1
Stresses and Strains in Pavement
HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

Stress and strain in pavements
2
Contents:
Stress in flexible pavements
Stress in homogeneous mass
Stress in a layered system
Stress in rigid pavements
Stress due to vehicle loading
Stress due to curling
Stress due to friction

Stress in Homogeneous Mass
3
The response of a pavement structure to traffic loading

is mechanistically modeled by computing stresses and
strains within its layers.
Excessive stresses may cause pavement fatigue cracking
and/or surface rutting which may result in both
structural and functional failure.
These failure distresses are minimized among others by
use of effective balanced pavement designs.
Pavement stress-strain analysis is constitutes an integral
part of pavement design and performance evaluation.

4
Although pavement structures are layered structures, we start

with a discussion of the stresses in a homogeneous half space.
Originally Boussinesq(1885) developed his equations for a
point load but later on the equations were extended for
circular wheel loads.
The simplest way to characterize the behavior of pavement
under wheel loads is to consider the subgrade, the sub base
and the surfacing layers to form a homogeneous half space.
If the modulus ratio between the pavement and the subgrade
is close to unity, as exemplified by a thin granular base, the
Boussinesq theory can be applied to determine the stresses,
strains and deflection in the subgrade.

5
The half space has an elastic modulus E and a

Poisson’s ratio.
A small cylindrical element with a center at a
distance z below the surface and r from the axis of
symmetry is shown.
Due to axisymmetry, there are only three normal
stresses, σz, σr, σt, and one shear stress, τrz, which is
equal to τzr.
These stresses are functions of q, r/a, and z/a.

6
 Figure 2-1 shows a homogeneous half space subjected to a

circular load with a radius a and a uniform pressure q.

7
 Foster and Ahlvin has developed charts as provided here

from Figure 2-2 to Figure 2-6 (assuming the half space is
incompressible with a Poisson ratio of 0.5.) for determining
 Vertical stress σz,
 Radial stress σr,

 Tangential stress σt,
 Shear stress τrz, and
 Vertical deflection w.

8
 Figure 2-2: Vertical stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

9
 Figure 2-3: Radial stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

10
 Figure 2-4: Tangential stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

11
 Figure 2-5: Shear stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

12
 Figure 2-6: Vertical deflection due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin,
1954)

13
 After the stresses are obtained from charts, the strains can
be computed from

14
If the contact area consists of two circles, the

stresses and strains can be computed by
superposition.
 When the wheel load is applied over a single
contact area, the most critical stress, strain, and
deflection occur under the center of the circular
area are on the axis of symmetry, where τrz=0 and
σt= σr, so σz and σt are the principal stresses.

15
 The stresses, strain, and deflection on the axis of symmetry of a wheel

load applied to a pavement (similar to a load applied to flexible plate)
with radius a and a uniform pressure q, can be computed by:

16
When v=0.5, the deflection equation is simplified

to:
On the surface of the loaded half space, z=0, the

deflection is

17
If the load is applied on a rigid plate such as that used

in plate loading test, the deflection is the same at all
points on the plate, but the pressure distribution
under the plate is not uniform and is expressed as:
Where
r = the distance from the center point where the pressure is to be
determined
q = the average pressure which is equal to the load divided by the
area.

18
 Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution of

vertical stress under the center of the circular loaded area when h1/a =
1 and v = 0.5.

19
The smallest pressure is at the center and equals to

one half of the average pressure. The pressure at
the edge is infinity. The deflection of the rigid plate
is given by:
All the above analysis is based on the assumption

that the flexible pavement is homogeneous,
isotropic and semi-infinite. Microsoft Edge
PDF Document

20
With these assumptions, Boussinesq theory has

the following drawbacks:
 Flexible pavements are multilayered structures with each
layer having its own modulus of elasticity.
 The pavement layer and the subgrade soil are not perfectly
elastic.
 The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may
not be true.

Stresses in Layered Systems
21
In actual case, flexible pavements are layered

systems with better materials on the top and
cannot be represented by a homogeneous mass.
Various multilayer theories for estimating stresses
and deflection have been proposed.
However, basic theories that utilize assumptions
close to actual conditions in flexible pavement are
those proposed by Burmister.

Stresses in Layered Systems
22
Burmister first developed solutions for two-layer system and then

extended them to a three-layer system with the following
assumptions:
 Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic and linearly elastic with elastic modulus,
E, and Poisson’s ratio, v.
 The material is weightless and infinite in lateral directions, but of finite depth,
h, whereas the underlying layer is infinite in both the horizontal and vertical
directions.
 A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface over a circular area of radius a.
 The layers are in continuous contact and continuity conditions are satisfied at
the layer interfaces, as indicated by the same vertical stresses, shear stresses,
vertical displacement and radial displacement. For frictionless interface, the
continuity of shear stress and radial displacement is replaced by zero shear
stress at each side of the interface.

Two-Layer Systems
23
 The exact case of a two layer system is the full depth asphalt
pavement construction in which a thick layer of hot-mix
asphalt is placed directly on the subgrade.
 If the pavement is composed of three layers (e.g., surface
course, base course and subgrade) the stresses and strains
in the surface layer can be computed by combining the base
course and the subgrade into a single layer.
 Similarly the stresses and strains in the subgrade can be
computed by combining the surface course and the base
course.

Two-Layer Systems
24
 Vertical Stress: - the stresses in a two layer system

depends on modulus ratio E1/E2 and the thickness radius
ratio h1/a.
 Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on the
distribution of vertical stress under the center of the
circular loaded area when h1/a = 1 and v = 0.5.
 Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement thickness and
modulus ratio on vertical stresses, σc, at the pavement-
subgrade interface.

Two-Layer Systems
25
 Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution of vertical
stress under the center of the circular loaded area when h1/a = 1 and v = 0.5.

Two-Layer Systems
26
 Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement thickness and modulus ratio on
vertical stresses, σc, at the pavement-subgrade interface.

Two-Layer Systems
27
 Deflection: - Surface and interface deflection have been

used as criteria for pavement design.
 The surface deflection under a uniformly circular loaded
area is given in terms of the defection factor F2 (Figure 2-
10) as:
 The interface deflection between the two layers is expressed

in terms of deflection factor F (Figure 2-11 & 2-12) as:

Two-Layer Systems
28
 Figure 2-10: Vertical surface deflection factor for two layer system.
(Burmister, 1943)

Two-Layer Systems
29
 Figure 2-11: Vertical interface deflection factor for two layer system,
E1/E2=10. (Haung, 1969)

Two-Layer Systems
30
 Figure 2-12: Vertical interface deflection factor for two layer system,
E1/E2=50. (Haung, 1969)

Two-Layer Systems
31
 Critical tensile strain: - The tensile strains at the

bottom of the asphalt layer have been used as design
criteria to prevent fatigue cracking.
 The critical strain at the bottom of the first layer can be
computed from strain factor Fe (Figure 2-13) as:
 The critical tensile strain under dual wheels or dual-tandem

wheels can be calculated from the same equation by
correcting the strain factor.

Two-Layer Systems
32
 Figure 2-13: Strain factor in two layer systems for single wheel. (Haung,
1973)

Three-Layer Systems
33
 The three layer systems can be conceived as follows:

1. Top layer, representing all bituminous layers taken
together.
2. Middle layer, representing the unbounded base and sub
base courses and
3. Third layer, representing the subgrade.

Three-Layer Systems
34
 Figure 2-14 shows a three-layer system and the stress at the interfaces of the
axis of symmetry.

Three-Layer Systems
35
 At the axis of symmetry, tangential and radial stresses are

identical, σt= σr, and shear stress is equal to zero, τ = 0.
 Jones has developed a series of tables for determining
stresses in a three layer system for the following
dimensionless parameters:

Three-Layer Systems
36
 Parts of Jones’s table is presented in Table 2-1, from which

four sets of stress factors, ZZ1, ZZ2, ZZ1-RR1, ZZ2-RR2, can
be obtained. The product of these factors and the contact
pressure gives the stresses as:

Three-Layer Systems
37
 From the continuity of horizontal displacements at the

interfaces, σ’r1 and σ’r1 can be computed from:

Three-Layer Systems
38
 Once the stresses at the interface are calculated, strains can

be computed as:
 For Vertical strains
{Bottom of Layer – 1}
{Top of Layer – 2}
 For radial strains
{Bottom of Layer – 1}
{Top of Layer – 2}

Three-Layer Systems
39

Stresses in Rigid Pavements
40
 Stresses in rigid pavement result mainly from:

the applied vehicle loads,
 changes in temperature of the slab, and
 friction between the slab and the subgrade, or base
 These factors tend to result in deformation of the concrete

slab which cause tensile, compression, and flexural stresses
of varying magnitude.

41
Curling:
 Due to temperature and moisture gradients
Loading: Corner, edge, and interior
 Due to traffic
Friction: between slab and foundation
 Due to drying shrinkage, thermal heating and cooling, and
foundation movement

Stresses due to vehicle loading
42
 Three methods can generally be used to determine stresses

and deflections in concrete pavements due to vehicle
loading:
 Westergaard’s formulas
 Influence charts
 Finite element analysis
 Here, Westergaard’s formulas derived to examine three

condition of loading: corner loading, interior loading and
edge loading far away from any corner are described.

43
 Westergaard’s assumptions
i. The concrete slab acts as homogenous, isotropic and
elastic solid in equilibrium
ii. The reactions of the subgrade are vertical only and they
are proportional to the deflection of the slab.
iii. The thickness of the concrete slab is uniform.
iv. The load at the interior and corner is distributed
uniformly over a circular contact area and the
circumference of the contact area at the corner is tangent
to the edge of the slab. The edge loading is distributed
uniformly over a semi-circular area, the diameter of the
semi-circle being at the edge of the slab.

44
 Corner Loading: - When a circular load is applied near

the corner of the concrete slab, the stress, σc, and the
deflection, ∆c, at the corner are given by:
Where
P is the applied load
l is the radius of relative stiffness and
k is the modulus of subgrade reaction
a is the contact radius.

45

46
The results obtained by applying the finite element method of analysis

are:
 Where, c is the side length of the square contact area, c=1.772a.

Modulus of subgrade reaction, k, is the constant in a classic works rigid
pavement and is defined as:
Where
p is the reactive pressure (determined by means of plate loading test) and
∆ is the deflection of the slab. The value of k is determined.

47
 Interior loading: - The formula developed by

Westergaard for the stress in the interior loading of a slab
under a circular loaded area of radius a is:
 In which l is the radius of relative stiffness and
 The deflection due to interior loading is

48
 Edge loading: - The stresses & deflection due to edge

loading as formulated by Westergaard are:
 For circular contact area
 For semicircular contact area

49
 When a load is applied over a set of dual tyres, the equation

can be used after converting the contact area of the dual
tyres into a radius, a, of equivalent circular contact area as:
Where Pd is the load on dual tyres

q is the contact pressure
Sd is the spacing of the tyres

Stresses due to Curling
50
Can be explained in two ways

 Weight of the slab
 Theory of plate on a Winkler foundation
Winkler Foundation Elastic Solid Foundation

(deflects only where load is applied)

51
 weight of the slab

Day Cool Hot
Tension
Weight of slab
Night
Compression

52
 theory of plate and Winkler foundation

53
Bending of Infinite Plates

Hook’s law: 

E
Generalization of Hook’s law

 infinitesimal strain  Superposition 
z
= + +
x y x z
y
y = +  v *  x (  v * ) +  v *  z (  v * )
E E E

54
 A change in temperature through the slab causes differential expansion

or contraction between the top and bottom which results curling of the
slab upward and downward.
 The weight of the slab restrains the slab from curling upward and
downward. Consequently, stresses known as curling or wrapping
stresses develop in the slab.
 During the day, when the temperature at the top of the slab is greater
than that of the bottom, the top tends to expand with respect to the
neutral axis while the bottom tends to contract.
 Because the weight of the slab restrains the downward curling,
compressive and tensile stresses are induced at the top and bottom of
the slab respectively.
 At night, when the temperature at the top is lower than that of the
bottom of the slab, the effect is reversed.

55
 The strain in the x-direction of infinite slab curled upward

due to stresses in both directions can be determined by
generalized Hook’s law as:
Where
is the strain in the x-direction due to the stress in the x- direction, σx.
is the strain in the x-direction due to the stress in the y- direction, σy.
 Similarly,

56
 When the slab is bent in the x-direction, εy=0, and σy =v σx

. Substituting these and solving for σx gives:
(the stress in the bending direction)
(The stress in the perpendicular direction of bending)
 When bending occurs in both directions as in the case of

temperature curling, the stresses in both directions must be
superimposed.

57
 Let ∆t represent differential between the top and bottom of

the slab and αt represents the coefficient of thermal
expansion of concrete.
 If the temperature at the top is greater than that of the
bottom and the slab is restrained and prevented from
moving, the strain developed at the top will be compressive
and tensile at the bottom with the assumption of linear
temperature distribution throughout the slab.  tt
2
Neutral
Axis
 t t
2

58
 The stress in the x-direction due to bending in the x-direction is
 The stress in the x-direction due to bending in the y-direction is
 The total stress in the x-direction is then,

59
 For finite slab with length Lx and Ly in the x & y-direction

respectively, the total stress in the x-direction can be
computed as:
Where Cx and Cy are correction factor for finite slab in the x- & y-direction.
 Similarly, the stress in the y-direction is:

60
 The correction factors can be obtained from Bradbury’s

chart with Lx/l and Ly/l in the respective directions.
 In the above equations, the computed stresses are the
maximum interior stresses at the center of the slab.
 The edge stress at the mid span of the slab can be
determined from:

61
 Figure 2-15: Bradbury stress correction factor for finite slab.

62
 Unless actual field measurements are made, it is reasonable

to assume a maximum gradient of 0.055oC/mm to
0.077oC/mm during the day and about half values at night.
 Stresses due to curling may be quite large and cause
concrete to crack when combined with loading stresses.
 However, they are not usually considered in the thickness
design of pavement slab.

Stresses due to Friction
63
 The friction between a concrete slab and its foundation

causes tensile stress in the concrete, in the steel
reinforcements, if any, and in the tie bars. It is the criteria
for
 The spacing of plain concrete contraction joints
 Steel reinforcement for long spaced concrete pavements
 The number of tie bars required.
 When volume change caused by variation in temperature
and moisture:
 Induces tensile stresses and causes the concrete to crack
 Causes the joints to open and decrease the efficiency of load transfer.

64
 Steel and joints in rigid pavements

65
 The figure on the next slide shows a concrete pavement

subjected to a decrease in temperature.
 Due to symmetry,
 the slab tends to move from both ends towards the center,
 but the subgrade prevents it from moving;
 thus, frictional stresses are developed between the slab and

the subgrade.
 The amount of friction depends on the relative movement,
being zero at the center where no movement occurs and
maximum at some distance from the center where the
movement is fully mobilized.

66
 Stresses due to friction

67
 The tensile stress in concrete is greatest at the center and

can be determined by equating frictional force per unit
width of the slab to the tensile stress as:
Where: σc = stress in the concrete

γc = unit weight of concrete
L = length of the slab
F = average coefficient of friction between the slab and
the subgrade, usually taken 1.5.

68
 The spacing of joints in plain concrete pavement depends more on the

shrinkage characteristics of the concrete than on the stress in the
concrete.
 Longer joint spacing causes the joint to open wider and decreases the
efficiency of load transfer.
 The opening of the joint can be determined approximately by:
Where:
∆L = joint spacing caused by temperature change and drying shrinkage of concrete.
αt = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete, generally 9 to 10.8x10 -6oC
ε = drying shrinkage coefficient of concrete, approximately 0.5 to 2.5x10 4
L = joint spacing or slab length
∆T = change in temperature
C = adjustment factor for friction layers, 0.65 for stabilized and 0.8 for granular base.

69
 The design of longitudinal and transverse reinforcements

and the tie bars across longitudinal joints are determined
based on the stresses due to friction assuming that tensile
stresses are taken by steel alone.
 Wire fabric or bar mats are used to increase the joint
spacing and to tie the cracked concrete together and
maintain load transfer through aggregate interlock, but not
to increase the structural capacity of the slab.

70
 The design of longitudinal and transverse reinforcements are

given by:
Where
As = the area of steel required per width
fs = allowable stress in steel
 The steel is usually placed at the mid depth and discontinued at
joints.
 However, in actual practice the same amount of steel is used
throughout the length of the slab.

71
 Tie bars are place along the longitudinal joint to tie the two
slabs together so that the joints will be tightly closed and
the load transfer across the joints can be ensured.
 The amount of steel required for the tie bars can be
determined as:
Where:
As = the area of steel required per length
L’ = the distance from the longitudinal joints to the free edges where no
bars exist.

72
 For two or three-lane highways, L’ is the lane width.

 If tie bars are used in all three longitudinal joints of four-
lane highways, L’ is equal to the lane width for the outer
joints and twice the lane width for the inner joints.
 The length of the tie bars is governed by the allowable bond
stress.

73
 The length of the tie bars is governed by the allowable bond

stress.
Where
t = length of the tie bar
fs = allowable steel stress
d = diameter of steel bar
μ = allowable bond stress

74
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CHAPTER TWO 1

Stresses and Strains in Pavement

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

The response of a pavement structure to traffic loading

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

Although pavement structures are layered structures, we start

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

The half space has an elastic modulus E and a

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 Figure 2-1 shows a homogeneous half space subjected to a

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 Foster and Ahlvin has developed charts as provided here

 Radial stress σr,

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

If the contact area consists of two circles, the

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 The stresses, strain, and deflection on the axis of symmetry of a wheel

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

When v=0.5, the deflection equation is simplified

On the surface of the loaded half space, z=0, the

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

If the load is applied on a rigid plate such as that used

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution of

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

The smallest pressure is at the center and equals to

All the above analysis is based on the assumption

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

With these assumptions, Boussinesq theory has

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

In actual case, flexible pavements are layered

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

Burmister first developed solutions for two-layer system and then

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 Vertical Stress: - the stresses in a two layer system

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 Deflection: - Surface and interface deflection have been

 The interface deflection between the two layers is expressed

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 Critical tensile strain: - The tensile strains at the

 The critical tensile strain under dual wheels or dual-tandem

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

 The three layer systems can be conceived as follows:

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements