The nervous system

PREPARED BY IMELDA A. YGAN

 The Nervous System

 Higher organisms have a nervous

system to perceive stimuli, to
transmit these to various parts of
the body, and to effect responses to
maintain homeostasis.

 This system serves also to

coordinate and integrate the
functions of cells, tissues, and
organ systems so that they act
harmoniously as a unit.
 General Functions of the Nervous System

 The sensory function of the nervous system

derives from sensory receptors at the ends
of peripheral neurons. Sensory receptors
convert environmental information into
nerve impulses. (see next slide for
perception process)
 The motor functions of the nervous system
employ peripheral neurons, which carry
impulses from the CNS to responsive
structures called effectors.
 Mental activity. The brain is the center of
mental activity, including consciousness,
memory and thinking.
The Perception Process
The Perception Process
 Human Nervous System

 Is consists of: the central

nervous system, with large
anterior brain connected to a
spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system of 12 pairs of
cranial nerves from the brain, 31
pairs of spinal nerves from the
cord exiting through the
intervertebral foramina.
 Human Nervous System
 PNS is further subdivided into
sensory and motor divisions.
 The motor division can be
further divided into somatic
motor nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system,
which can be divided into
sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems.
 Components of the Nervous System
 The nervous system is composed of nerve
cells, or neurons, with cell processes
known as dendrites and axons.
 The neuron is the structural and functional
unit of the nervous system which
constitute about 10% of the cells in the
human nervous system.
 The remainder are glial cells (neuroglia)
which are not electrically excitable but
which support the neurons physically and
are believed to participate actively in brain
function.
 The Nerve Cell
 Each nerve cell is consists of a cell body
and two types of processes: dendrites
and axons.
 Where the axon leaves the cell body is
an area called the axon hillock, which is
devoid of Nissl bodies.
 An axon may remain unbranched or may
branch to form collateral axon (fig.8.3).
 Axons are surrounded by neuroglia
called Schwann cells, which form a
highly specialized insulating layer of
cells called the myelin sheath.
 Neuroglial Cells

 Microglial Cells are scattered throughout the

CNS.

 They support neurons and phagocytize bacterial

cells and cellular debris.
Neuroglial Cells
 Oligodendrocytes align along nerve
fibers.
 They provide insulating layers of
myelin, called myelin sheath around
axons within brain and spinal cord.
 Neuroglial Cells
 Schwann cells are glial cells surrounding the
axons of neurons in the PNS.

 Schwann cells are also referred to as

neurolemmocytes or neurolemma cells.
 Neuroglial Cells
 Astrocytes, commonly found between
neurons and blood vessels, provide
structural support, join parts by their
abundant cellular processes, and help
regulate the concentrations of nutrients
and ions within the tissue.

 Astrocytes also form scar tissue that fills

spaces following injury to the CNS.
Neuroglial Cells

 Ependymal cells form an

epithelia-like membrane that
covers specialized brain parts
(choroid plexuses) and forms the
inner linings that enclose spaces
within the brain (ventricles) and
spinal cord (central canal).
Synapses
 Between any two related neurons in
function there is a close association, or
synapse which passes nerve impulse in
only one direction, from the axon of
one neuron to the dendrite of the other.

 Here, electrical signals that have

travelled along the axon are briefly
converted into chemical ones through
the release of neurotransmitters,
causing a specific response in the
receiving neuron.
 Synaptic Transmission

 Synaptic transmission is a one-way process carried out by biochemicals called

neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft.
 The neuron carrying the impulse into the synapse is the presynaptic neuron,
and the one that receives this input at the synapse is the postsynaptic neuron.
 The distal ends of axons have one or more extensions called synaptic knobs,
absent in dendrites, which contain many membranous sacs, called synaptic
vesicles.
 When a nerve impulse reaches a synaptic knob, some of the vesicles release
neurotransmitter.
 The neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft and reacts with specific
receptors on the post-synaptic neuron membrane.
 Excitatory, Inhibitory or Modulatory Actions

 Neurotransmitters released by some of these knobs have an excitatory

action (bring the postsynaptic membrane closer to threshold and
trigger nerve impulses), but those from other knobs have an inhibitory
action (make it less likely that threshold will be reached).
 Neuromodulators are a bit different, as they are not restricted to the
synaptic cleft between two neurons, and so can affect large numbers
of neurons at once.
 The effect on the postsynaptic neuron depends on which presynaptic
knobs are activated from moment to moment.
 Organization of Nervous Tissue
 Groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites,
where there is very little myelin, form gray matter.
 Gray matter on the surface of the brain is called,
cortex, and clusters of gray matter located deeper
within the brain are called, nuclei.
 In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell bodies is called a
ganglion. Ganglia can be thought of as synaptic
relay stations between neurons.

 Bundles of parallel axons with myelin sheaths are

whitish in color and are called white matter.
 Types of Nerves
 Nerves are bundles of axons. An axon
is often referred to as a nerve fiber.
Nerve fibers are classified as:
- sensory fibers or afferent fibers
- motor fibers or efferent fibers

 A nerve is a cordlike bundle of nerve

fibers within layers of connective
tissue. These are classified into:
- sensory nerves
- motor nerves
 Most nerves include both sensory and
motor fibers and are called mixed
nerves.
 Nerve Pathways
 The routes nerve impulses follow
as they travel the nervous system
are called nerve pathways.

 The simplest of these pathways

includes only a few neurons and is
called a reflex arc.

 It constitutes the structural and

functional basis for involuntary
actions called reflexes.
 Reflex Arcs
 A reflex arc begins with a receptor at the
end of a sensory (or afferent) neuron. This
neuron usually leads to several
interneurons within CNS, which serve as a
processing center, or reflex center.

 These interneurons can connect with

interneurons in other parts of the nervous
system.

 They also communicate with motor

neurons, whose axons pass outward from
the CNS to effectors.
 Meninges
 Bones, membranes, and fluid
surround the organs of the CNS.

 Layered membranes called

meninges lie between the bony
covering and the soft tissues of
the CNS, protecting the brain and
the spinal cord.

 The meninges have three layers –

dura mater, arachnoid mater, and
pia mater.
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the ventricles,
the subarachnoid space around the brain and
spinal cord, and the central canal of the spinal
cord.

Approximately 23 ml of CSF fills the

ventricles, and 117ml fills the subarachnoid
space.

CSF provides a protective fluid cushion around

the brain and spinal cord, protecting them from
movements of the skull and vertebral column. It
also provides some nutrients to CNS tissues.
 The Spinal Cord
 The spinal cord varies in size with different
vertebrates. In the average man, it is about
18 inches long, extending only to the level
of the first lumbar vertebra.

 It is protected by the vertebral column and

the three layers of meninges – the dura
mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.

 Spaces between these protective layers

contain cerebrospinal fluid which forms a
protective cushion.
 Section of a Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is divided into right and left
halves.

Peripherally located is the white matter,

surrounding the gray matter which is shaped like a
butterfly.

The white matter in each half of the spinal cord is

organized into three columns, or funiculi, called the
ventral, dorsal, and lateral columns.

Each column is subdivided into tracts, also called

fasciculi or pathways.
The tracts consist of axons ascending to the brain
or descending from the brain.
 Section of a Spinal Cord
Spinal nerves arise from numerous rootlets
along the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the
spinal cord.

The rootlets combine to form a ventral root

and a dorsal root at each segment of the cord.

The ventral and dorsal roots extend laterally

from the cord, passing through the
subarachnoid space, piercing the arachnoid
mater and dura mater, and joining one another
to form a spinal nerve.
 Functions of the Spinal Cord
 The spinal cord has two major
functions – conducting nerve
impulses to and from the brain, and
serving as a center for spinal
reflexes.

 The nerve tracts of the spinal cord

consist of axons that provide a two-
way communication system between
the brain and the body parts outside
the nervous system: the ascending
tracts and the descending tracts.
Functions of the Spinal Cord

 The ascending tracts carry sensory

information from the body, like pain,
for example, up the spinal cord to the
brain.

 The descending tracts carry motor

informations, like instructions to move
the arm, from the brain down the spinal
cord to the body.
 The Brain
 There are five divisions of the brain in
adult vertebrates:

 (1) Telencephalon or cerebrum, the

anterior and largest division. It is the seat
of consciousness, intelligence, sensory
perception of sight, olfactory, and
auditory senses, and coordination of body
movements,

 (2) Diencephalon or twixt brain, the part

posterior to the cerebrum and connects
the cerebrum with the other motor center
for visual sensation,
The Brain

 (3) Mesencephalon or optic lobe, the

center for visual sensation,
 (4) Metencephalon or cerebellum, the
seat of unconscious motor coordination and
maintenance of muscular equilibrium, and
 (5) Myelencephalon or medulla
oblongata, the center of various secretory
functions and movement of the digestive
tract, heart, blood vessels, and lungs.
Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres
 The Cerebrum
 The largest part of the human brain is the
cerebrum.
 It is consists of two large masses called the left and
right cerebral hemispheres, which are essentially
mirror images of each other.

 A deep bridge of nerve fibers called corpus

callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres.

 A layer of dura mater (falx cerebri) separates

them.

 It contains about half the nerve cells in the brain.

 The surface is called cerebral cortex and is thrown

into folds, called convolutions (gyri) that greatly
increase its area.
 The Cerebrum
 A shallow groove on the cortex is
called a sulcus, and a deep groove is
called fissure.
 A longitudinal fissure separates the
right and left cerebral hemispheres, a
transverse fissure separates the
cerebrum from the cerebellum.
 The cell bodies of neurons
predominate in the cortex which
receive information, process it, store
some in memory for future use, and
direct voluntary motor output.
 Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres
 The several sulci divide each
hemisphere into lobes:
- Frontal lobe – for voluntary motor
functions, motivation, aggression,
mood and olfactory.
- Parietal lobe – for touch, pain,
temperature balance, and taste.
- Temporal lobe – for olfactory,
auditory, and memory.
- Occipital lobe – for visual input.
Practical Consideration
 Damage to the cortex due to trauma,
stroke, or a tumor results in specific
deficits, such as problems with speech,
difficulty in reading, or inability to
sense or move specific parts of the
body.

 Since brain cells cannot reproduce,

once a brain region is destroyed, it
cannot be repaired or replaced, so
these deficits are often permanent.
The Diencephalon
 The diencephalon has a slender
dorsal pineal body, or epiphysis.

 Below the diencephalon is the

optic chiasma followed by the
infundibulum, with the
hypophysis, or pituitary gland, at
its posterior end.
 Limbic System
 The limbic system is a diverse group
of structures located in an arc
between the thalamus and the
cerebrum.
 These structures work together to 0
produce our most basic and primitive
emotions, drives, and behaviors,
including fear, rage, tranquility,
hunger, thirst, pleasure, and sexual
responses.
 Hippocampus
 Hippocampus curves around the
thalamus.
 Stimulation of portions of the
hippocampus can elicit behaviors
that reflect a variety of emotions,
including rage and sexual arousal.
 It also plays an important role in
the formation of long-term
memory, and thus is required for
learning.
Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus contains many different
clusters of neurons.
 Some of these are neurosecretory cells that
release hormones.
 Through this hormone production and neural
connections, the hypothalamus acts as a
major coordinating center, controlling body
temperature, hunger, the menstrual cycle,
water balance, and the autonomic nervous
system.
 In addition, stimulation of specific areas of
the hypothalamus elicits emotions such as
rage, fear, pleasure, and sexual arousal.
The Hindbrain
 The hindbrain is represented by the
medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
cerebellum. This constitute the
“brainstem”.
 The medulla oblongata is the most
posterior division of the brain, and is a
conical continuation of the spinal cord.
This is the respiratory center of the
body.
 Between the medulla and the midbrain
is a thick bundle of fibers, the pons
(“bridge”) that carry impulses from
one side of the cerebellum to the other.
The Cerebellum
 The cerebellum lies above the
medulla and is concerned with
equilibrium, posture, and
movement.

 Its development is directly

correlated with the individual’s
mode of locomotion, agility of limb
movement, and balance.
 Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerves
(Names and Functions in p327)
 The 12 Cranial Nerves and their Functions

 I. Olfactory nerve  V. Trigeminal nerve

 The olfactory nerve transmits sensory information to  The trigeminal nerve is the largest of your cranial nerves and has
your brain regarding smells that you encounter. both sensory and motor functions. The trigeminal nerve has three
divisions, which are:
 II. Optic nerve  Ophthalmic. The ophthalmic division sends sensory information
 The optic nerve is the sensory nerve that involves vision. from the upper part of your face, including your forehead, scalp,
and upper eyelids.
 III. Oculomotor nerve
 Maxillary. This division communicates sensory information from
 The oculomotor nerve has two different motor functions: the middle part of your face, including your cheeks, upper lip,
muscle function and pupil response. and nasal cavity.
 IV. Trochlear nerve  Mandibular. The mandibular division has both a sensory and a
motor function. It sends sensory information from your ears,
 The trochlear nerve controls your superior oblique lower lip, and chin. It also controls the movement of muscles
muscle. This is the muscle that’s responsible for within your jaw and ear.
downward and inward eye movements.
 (…..cont) The 12 Cranial Nerves
 VI. Abducens nerve  VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve
 The abducens nerve controls another muscle that’s associated  Your vestibulocochlear nerve has sensory functions
with eye movement, called the lateral rectus muscle. This muscle involving hearing and balance. It consists of two parts, the
is involved in outward eye movement. For example, you would cochlear portion and vestibular portion:
use it to look to the side.
Cochlear portion - Specialized cells within your
 VII. Facial nerve
ear detect vibrations from sound based off of
 The facial nerve provides both sensory and motor functions,
the sound’s loudness and pitch. This
including:
generates nerve impulses that are transmitted
moving muscles used for facial expressions as
to the cochlear nerve.
well as some muscles in your jaw
 Vestibular portion. Another set of special cells in this
 providing a sense of taste for most of your tongue
portion can track both linear and rotational movements of
 supplying glands in your head or neck area, such as salivary your head. This information is transmitted to the vestibular
glands and tear-producing glands nerve and used to adjust your balance and equilibrium.
 communicating sensations from the outer parts of your ear.
(cont.) The 12 Cranial nerves

 IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve  X. Vagus nerve

 The glossopharyngeal nerve has both

 The vagus nerve is a very diverse nerve. It has
both sensory and motor functions, including:
motor and sensory functions, including:
communicating sensation information from your
sending sensory information from your ear canal and parts of your throat
sinuses, the back of your throat, parts of  sending sensory information from organs in your
your inner ear, and the back part of your chest and trunk, such as your heart and intestines
tongue
 allowing motor control of muscles in your throat
 providing a sense of taste for the back  stimulating the muscles of organs in your chest
part of your tongue and trunk, including those that move food
 stimulating for voluntary movement of a through your digestive tract (peristalsis)
muscle in the back of your throat called  providing a sense of taste near the root of your
the stylopharyngeus. tongue
(cont.) The 12 Cranial Nerves

 XI. Accessory nerve  XII. Hypoglossal nerve

 Your accessory nerve is a motor nerve  Your hypoglossal nerve is the 12th cranial
that controls the muscles in your neck. nerve which is responsible for the
These muscles allow you to rotate, flex, movement of most of the muscles in your
and extend your neck and shoulders. tongue. It starts in the medulla oblongata
and moves down into the jaw, where it
reaches the tongue.
 Spinal Nerves
 There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves
that moved out from the spinal
cord through the intervertebral
foramina at the sides of the
vertebral column.
 There are 8 pairs of cervical spinal
nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic spinal
nerves, 5 pairs of lumbar spinal
nerves, 5 pairs of sacral spinal
nerves and a pair of coccygeal
spinal nerves.
Autonomic Nervous System
 The autonomic nerves govern the
involuntary functions of the body which
do not ordinarily affect consciousness.

 Autonomic nerves control the

movements of most organs in the body.
Although these nerves have both sensory
and motor components, the former are
considered of minor importance.

 Their actions are antagonistic.

 Subdivisions of the Autonomic Nerves

 Parasympathetic division – centered

partly in the brain and partly in the
lower end of the spinal cord.
 It is for this reason that it is regarded
as craniosacral division of the
autonomic nervous system.
 Once stimulated, it is for the rest and
repose response of the body.
Subdivisions of the Autonomic Nerves

 The sympathetic division is centered in

the middle part of the spinal cord. Thus it
is also known as the thoracolumbar
division.
 Sympathetic fibers excite the heart, blood
vessels, sphincters of the intestines, urinary
bladder, dilator muscles of the iris and
others.
 It is for the fight or flight response of the
individual.
Thank You!