DEFINITION OF TERMS

Fire (Various definitions):

a. Rapid oxidation of matter accompanied by heat
or flame;
b. A rapid chemical reaction that gives off energy
and products of combustion that are very
different in composition from the fuel and
oxygen that combine to produce them;
c. A chemical reaction that occurs, when fuel, air
and a source of ignition are brought together at
the same time and in proper proportions.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Oxidation – A complex chemical reaction of
organic materials with oxygen in air or other
oxidizing agents resulting in the formation of a
more stable compound.
• Organic materials – Substances containing
carbon, such as plant and animal materials. More
stable compounds are simply those with less
bound up chemical energy.
• Combustion – A self sustaining process of rapid
oxidation.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Fuel – Any form of matter capable of burning.
• Heat – A form of energy that raises temperature.
• British thermal unit (BTU) – The amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one pound of water to one degree Fahrenheit.
• Calorie – The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
gram of water to one degree Celsius.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Fahrenheit – English unit of temperature with 32⁰ as freezing point of
water and 212⁰ as boiling point.
• Celsius – Metric unit of temperature with 0⁰ as freezing point of water
and 100⁰ as boiling point.
• Vapor pressure – A measure of the tendency of a substance to
evaporate.
• Boiling point – When vapor pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure.
Also when rate of evaporation exceeds rate of condensation.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Flash point – The minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel gives off
vapors to form an ignitable mixture with oxygen in air.
• Fire point – The temperature at which a liquid fuel will produce vapors
sufficient to support continuous combustion when heated.
• Vaporization – Process by which gases (vapors) are evolved from liquid
when heated.
• Pyrolysis – Process by which gases (vapors) are evolved from solid when
heated.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Flammable limits (range) – The limits within the percentage of a
substance in vapor state in air will burn once it is ignited. This is where
the fuel vapor in air mixture is in proper proportions to support
combustion.
• Specific gravity – Density of a liquid in relation to water. This is the
weight of the liquid compared to the weight of an equal volume of
water.
• Vapor density – Density of gas or vapor in relation to air. This is the
weight of the gas or vapor compared to the weight of an equal volume
of air.
 ELEMENTS OF FIRE
• Heat
• Fuel
• Oxygen

For a fire to occur, three (3) things must be present at the same time and
in proper proportions; a fuel, a source of ignition (heat), and a source of
oxygen (air or any oxidizing agent).
 FUEL
• Fuel is the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the
combustion process.
• In scientific terms, the fuel in a combustion reaction is known as
reducing agent.
• Most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of
hydrogen and oxygen.
• These fuels can broken down further into hydrocarbon-based fuels (such
as gasoline, oil, and plastics) and cellulose-based materials (such as
wood an paper).
 FUEL
• There are also other based fuels that are less complex in their chemical
makeup, including hydrogen gas and combustible metals such as
magnesium and sodium.
• In the combustion process there are two (2) fuel-related factors:

1. the physical state of the fuel; and

2. its distribution.
• These factors are discussed as follows:
 FUEL
• A fuel may be found in any of the three states of
matter: solid, liquid or gas.
• Only gases burn; to burn fuels must normally be in its
gaseous state.
• For solids and liquids, energy must be expended to
cause these physical changes.
• The initiation of combustion of a liquid or solid fuel
require their conversion into gaseous state by heating.
 SOLID FUELS
Fuel gases are evolved from solid fuels by pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is the
chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat.
Simply stated, as solid fuels are heated, combustible materials are
driven from the substance. If there is sufficient fuel and heat, the
process of pyrolysis generates sufficient quantities of burnable gases to
ignite.
Because of their nature, solid fuels have a definite shape and size. This
property significantly affects the ignition of the fuel.
 SOLID FUELS
• Of primary importance is the surface-to-mass ratio of the fuel. The
surface-to-mass ratio is the surface area of the fuel in relation to the
mass.
• Wood is one of the best examples of the surface-to-mass ratio. To
produce usable materials, a tree must cut into a log.
• The mass of the log is very high, but the surface area is relatively low,
thus the surface-to-mass ratio is low.
 SOLID FUELS
The log is then milled into boards. The result of this process is to reduce
the mass of the individual boards as compared to the log, but the
resulting surface area is increased, thus increasing the surface to mass
ratio.
As the surface area increases, more of the material is exposed to heat
and thus generates more burnable gases by pyrolysis.
 SOLID FUELS
• The physical position of the solid fuel is also of great importance.

• If the solid fuel is in a vertical position, fire spread will be more rapid
than if it is in horizontal position.
• The rapidity of fire spread is due to the increased heat transfer through
the three (3) ways of heat transfer, which will be explained later.
 LIQUID FUELS
• Fuels gases are evolved from liquid fuels through a process known as
vaporization.
• Vaporization, in scientific terms, is the transformation of a liquid to its
vapor or gaseous state. There must be some energy input in order to
cause this transformation.
• In most cases, this energy is provided in the form of heat.

• A liquid assumes the shape of its container.

• The surface-to-volume ratio of liquids is an important factor.

 LIQUID FUELS
• When contained in a container, the specific volume of a liquid has
relatively low surface-to-volume ratio.
• When it is released, this ratio increases significantly as the amount of
the fuel vaporized from the surface.
• The specific gravity of liquid fuel is an important factor in the degree of
hazard of a liquid.
• A liquid fuel with a specific gravity of less than one is more hazardous
than a fuel liquid with a specific gravity of more that one.
 LIQUID FUELS
• Solubility of a fuel liquid is also an important factor.

• Polar Solvents, such as alcohol, dissolves or mix with water.

• Hydrocarbons, such as oils or gasoline, do not mix with water

 HEAT
• Heat is the energy element of fire. It is a form of energy which may
be described as a condition caused by “molecules in motion”
• When heat, through a source of ignition, comes in contact with a
fuel, the heat (as a form of energy) supports the combustion process.
 SOURCES OF HEAT
• Heat can be derived from other forms of energies that results in the
ignition of a fuel.
• The five (5) general categories of heat energy are:
1. Chemical Heat Energy
2. Electrical Heat Energy
3. Mechanical Heat Energy
4. Nuclear Heat Energy
5. Solar Heat Energy
 CHEMICAL HEAT ENERGY
• Common types of heat generated as a result of chemical reaction
are:
a. Heat of Combustion – Heat generated by the process of
oxidation of matter. Ex: Flame of a candle.
b. Spontaneous heating – Heating of an organic substance
without the addition of an external heat. Ex: Oil soaked rag.
c. Heat of decomposition – Release of heat from decomposing
compounds, usually due to bacterial action. Ex: Compost pile
d. Heat of solution – Heat released by the solution of matter in a
liquid. Some acids when dissolved in water, can produce violent
reactions, spewing heat with explosive force.
 ELECTRICAL HEAT ENERGY
• Electrical heat energy has the ability to generate high temperature that
are capable of igniting any combustible material near the heated area.
• Heat generated by electricity can occur in a variety of ways, such as:
a. Resistance heating – Generated by an electrical current passing
through a conductor with a small resistance: Ex: Overloaded circuits.
b. Dielectric heating – Action of pulsating a DC or AC at high frequency
on a non conductive material. Ex: Defective micro-oven.
 ELECTRICAL HEAT ENERGY
• Leakage current heating – Generated by current leaks to surrounding
combustible materials. Ex: Wires which are not well insulated.
• Static electricity – Build up of a positive charge on one surface and a
negative charge on the another surface. Ex: Lightning.
 MECHANICAL HEAT ENERGY
• Mechanical Heat Energy is generated in two ways:

1. Heat by friction is created by the movement of two surfaces against its

other.

2. Heat by compression is generated when a gas is compressed. Diesel

engines ignite fuel vapor without a spark plug by the use of this principle.
 NUCLEAR HEAT ENERGY

• Nuclear heat energy is generated when atoms are either split apart or
combined.

1. Fission is the splitting of atoms.

2. Fusion is the combining of atoms.

 SOLAR HEAT ENERGY
• Solar heat energy is heat transmitted from the sun in the from of
electromagnetic radiation.
• Typically, solar energy is transmitted fairly and evenly over the surface of
the earth and in itself is not capable of starting a fire. However, when it
is concentrated on a particular point, as through the use of a lens, it may
ignite combustible materials.
 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
• The transfer of heat from one point or object to another is a basic
concept in the study of fire.
• Heat is the energy transferred from one body to another when the
temperature of the two bodies are different.
• Temperature is an indicator of heat and is the measure of the warmth
or coldness of an object based on an standard.
 OXIDIZING AGENTS
• The oxygen in air around us is considered as the primary oxidizing agent.

• Normally, air consists of about 21% oxygen.

• Aside from air there are other oxidizing agents. These are those
materials that yield oxygen or other oxidizing gases during the course of
a chemical reaction.
• Oxidizers themselves are not combustible, but they support combustion
when combined with fuel.
 COMMON OXIDIZERS
• While oxygen is the most common oxidizer, there are other substances
that fall into the category, such as the following:
1. Bromates 7. Nitrates
2. Bromine 8. Nitric Acid
3. Chlorates 9. Nitrites
4. Chlorine 10. Perchlorates
5. Fluorine 11. Permanganates
6. Iodine 12. Peroxides
 HOW A FIRE WILL START
• For a fire to start, all the three elements, fuel, heat, and oxygen must
come together at the same time and in proper proportions.
• When a source of ignition (heat) comes in contact with fuel in air, the
heat energy supports the combustion reaction through pyrolysis or
vaporization of solid or liquid fuels.
 HOW A FIRE WILL START
• The heat energy from the source of ignition is also necessary for ignition
to occur and for the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or
gases.
• The time it takes for a combustion reaction to occur is the determining
factor in the type of reaction that is observed.
• If the fuel is in liquid state, the temperature of the heat absorbed from
the source of ignition must reach flash point the fuel, at which vapors
will start to be evolved from the fuel but not sufficient enough to
support combustion.
 HOW A FIRE WILL START
• If the liquid fuel continue to absorb more heat energy from the source of
ignition, temperature increases until it reaches fire point at which vapors
produced are already sufficient enough to support continuous
combustion.
• However, for combustion to occur after a fuel has been converted into
vapor or gaseous state, it must be mixed with air (oxidizer) in proper
ratio.
• The range of concentration of the fuel vapor and air is called flammable
limits (range).
 FLASH POINTS AND IGNITION
TEMPERATURES OF SELECTED FUEL
LIQUIDS

Substance Flash Point Ignition Temp.

Asphalt 400⁰F 905⁰F
Fuel Oil 105⁰F 490⁰F
Turpentine 95⁰F 464⁰F
Alcohol 55⁰F 700⁰F
Gasoline -45⁰F 495⁰F
IGNITION TEMPERATURES OF
SELECTED FUELS
Substance Ignition Temp.
Hydrogen 1085⁰F
Carbon 925⁰F
Sulphur 450⁰F
Coal 750⁰F
Wood 450⁰F
Kerosene 490⁰F
 FIRE DEVELOPMENT
• When the 3 components of the fire tetrahedron come
together, combustion occurs.
• For a fire to grow beyond the first material ignited,
heat must be transmitted beyond the first material to
additional fuel available.
• In the early development of the fire, heat rises and
forms a plume of hot gas.
• If the fire is in the open (outside or in large building),
the fire plume rises unobstructed and air is drawn into
it as it rises. The spread of the fire in an open area is
primarily due to heat energy that is transmitted from
the plume to nearby fuels.
 FIRE DEVELOPMENT
• Fire spread in outside fires can be increased by wind and sloping terrain
that allow exposed fuels to be preheated.
• The development of a fire in a compartment is more complex than a fire
in the open.
• A compartment is an enclosed room or space within the building. The
term compartment fire is defined as a fire that occurs within such space.
• The growth and development of a compartment fire is usually controlled
by the availability of fuel and oxygen.
 FIRE DEVELOPMENT
• When the amount of fuel to burn is limited, the fire is said to be fuel
controlled.
• When the amount of available oxygen is limited, the condition is called
ventilation controlled.
• Recently, researchers have attempted to describe compartment fires in
terms of stages or phases that occur as fire develops.
STAGES OF COMPARTMENT FIRES
• The stages of compartment fires are:
1. Ignition
2. Growth
3. Flashover
4. Fully Developed
5. Decay
 IGNITION STAGE
• Ignition stage describes the period when the 3 components of fire come
together and combustion begins.
• The physical act of ignition can be piloted (caused by spark or flame) or
non-piloted (caused when a material reaches its ignition temperature as
a result of self heating) such as spontaneous ignition.
• At this point, the fire is small and generally confined in the material
(fuel) first ignited.
 GROWTH STAGE
• Shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel.
As the plume develops, it begins to draw air from the surrounding space.
• Unlike an unconfined fire, the plume in a compartment is rapidly
affected by the ceiling and walls of the space. The first impact is the
amount of air that is drawn into the plume.
 GROWTH STAGE
• Because the air is cooler than the hot gases generated by the fire, the air
has a cooling effect on the plume temperatures. The location of the fuel
package in relation to the compartment walls determines the amount of
air that is drawn and thus the amount of cooling that takes place.
• Fuel packages that are located near walls will draw less air and will have
higher plume temperature.
 GROWTH STAGE
• Fuel packages located in corners draw even less air and will have the
highest plume temperature.
• This factor significantly impacts the temperature that are developed in
the hot gas layer above the fire. As the hot gas rise, they begin to spread
outward when they hit the ceiling. This spread continues until the walls
that make up the compartment are reached.
• The depth of the gas layer then begins to increase.
 GROWTH STAGE
• The temperatures in the compartment during this period are dependent
on the amount of heat conducted into the compartment ceiling and
walls as the gases flow over them, the location of the initial fuel
package, and the resulting air drawn into the plume.
• Research shows that the gas temperatures decrease as the distance
from the centerline of the plume increases.
 GROWTH STAGE
• The growth stage continues if enough fuel and oxygen are available.
• Compartment fires in the growth stage are generally fuel controlled.
• As the fire grows, the overall temperature in the compartment increases
as does the temperature of the gas layer at the at the ceiling level.
 FLASHOVER STAGE
• Flashover is the transition between the growth and fully developed fire
stages and is not a specific event such as ignition.
• During flashover, conditions in the compartment change very rapidly as
the fire changes from one that is dominated by the burning of the
materials first ignited to one that involves all of the combustibles within
the compartment.
 FLASHOVER STAGE
• The hot gas layer that develops at the ceiling level
during the growth stage causes radiant heating of
combustible materials remote from the origin of the
fire.
• Typically, this radiant heating causes pyrolysis to take
place in the combustible materials in the
compartment.
• The gases generated during this time are heated to
their ignition temperatures by the radiant heat energy
from the gas layer at the ceiling.
 FLASHOVER STAGE
• Just prior to flashover, several things are happening
within the burning compartment. The temperatures
are rapidly increasing, additional fuel packages are
becoming involved, and the fuel packages in the
compartment are giving off combustible gases as a
result of pyrolysis.
• As flashover occurs, the combustible materials in the
compartment and the pyrolysis gases ignite. The result
is a full-room involvement.
 FULLY DEVELOPED STAGE
• The fully developed stage occurs when all combustible
materials in the compartment are involved in the fire.
• During this period of time, the burning fuels in the
compartment are releasing maximum amount of heat
possible and producing large volumes of fire gases.
• The heat released and the volume of fire gases
produced depend on the number and size of the
ventilation openings in the compartment.
 FULLY DEVELOPED STAGE
• The fire frequently becomes ventilation controlled; and therefore, large
volumes of unburned gases are produced.
• During this stage, hot unburned fire gases are likely to begin flowing
from the compartment of origin into adjacent spaces or compartments.
These hot gases ignite as they enter a space where air is more abundant.
 DECAY STAGE
• As the available fuel in the compartment is consumed
by the fire, the rate of heat release begins to decline.
Once again the fire becomes fuel controlled, the
amount of fire diminishes, and the temperatures
within the compartment begin to decline.
• The remaining mass of glowing embers can, however,
result in moderately high temperatures in the
compartment for some time.
 FACTORS THAT IMPACT FIRE DEVELOPMENT

• As the compartment fire progresses from ignition to decay, several

factors impact the behavior of a fire and its development within a
compartment. These factors are:
1. Size, number, and arrangement of ventilation openings;
2. Volume of the compartment;
3. Thermal properties of the compartment enclosures;
4. Ceiling height of the compartment;
5. Size, composition, and location of the fuel package that is first
ignited; and
6. Availability and locations of additional fuel packages.
 FACTORS THAT IMPACT FIRE DEVELOPMENT
• For a fire to develop, there must be sufficient air available to
support burning beyond ignition stage.
• The size and number of ventilation openings in a compartment
determine how the fire develops within the space.
• The compartment size and shape and the ceiling height determine
whether a significant hot gas will form or not.
• The location of the initial fuel package is also very important in the
development of the hot gas layer.
• The plumes of burning fuel packages in the center of a
compartment draw more air and are cooler than those against the
walls or in the corners of the compartment.
 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Several conditions or situations occur during the
course of a fire’s development that should be
discussed. These conditions can occur as a fire
proceeds through the stages of growth and
development. These conditions or situations are:
1. Flameover/Rollover
2. Thermal Layering of Gases
3. Backdraft