Chapter 5

Chapter 5
Working Motivation
05/04/2023 1
Learning Outcomes
1. Appreciate why motivation is of central importance in

organizations and the difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
2. Understand what we can learn about motivation from need
theories
3. Describe why expectancy, valence, and instrumentality are
of central importance for work motivation
4. Appreciate the importance of equity and the dangers of
inequity
Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 2

5.1. The nature of work motivation
• What is work motivation?

o Can be defined as the psychological forces within a person
that determine the direction of that person’s behavior in an
organization, effort level, and persistence in the face of
obstacles

• Three key elements of work motivation:

o Direction of behavior: which behaviors does a person choose
to perform? In other words, it refers to the behavior
employees choose to perform from the many potential
behaviors they could perform
o Level of effort: how hard does a person work to perform a
chose behavior?
o Level of persistence: when faced with obstacles, how hard
does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior
successfully?

• The distinction between motivation and performance

o Performance: is an evaluation of the results of a person’s
behavior: it involves determining how well or poorly a person
has accomplished a task or done a job
o Motivation: is one factor among many that contributes to an
employee’s job performance

• What is the relationship between motivation and

performance?
o All else being equal, one would expect a highly motivated
screenwriter to write better scripts than those written by a
poorly motivated screenwriter
o However, “all else” is not always equal because so many
other factors affect performance – factors such as personality
and ability, the difficulty of the task, the availability of
resources, working conditions, and chance or luck

• Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

o Intrinsically motivated work behavior is behavior that is
performed for it own sake; in other words, the source of
motivation actually comes from performing the behavior
itself
o Extrinsically motivated work behavior is behavior that is
performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid
punishment

5.2. Theories of work motivation
• The key challenge facing managers in terms of motivation is

how to encourage employees to contribute inputs to their
jobs (performance) and to the organization (outcomes)

• Employees are concerned with obtaining outcomes from the

organization – both extrinsic outcomes (pay and job security)
and intrinsic outcomes (a feeling of accomplishment from
doing a good job or the pleasure of doing interesting work)

• The motivation equation
Inputs Performance Outcomes

Effort/ time/ Quantity of Pay/ job security/
education/ work/ quality of benefits/ vacation/
experience/ work/ level of job satisfaction/
skills/ customer service feeling of
knowledge/ accomplishment/
job behaviors pleasure of doing
interesting work

• Theories about work motivation provide answers to the

following questions:
o What motivates people?
o Why they become motivated?
o How they sustain their motivation?

5.3. Early theories of motivation
• The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of

motivation concepts. Four specific theories were formulated
during this period (Hierarchy of Needs theory, Theory X and
Theory Y, Two-factor Theory, and McClelland’s Theory of
Needs)
• You should know these early theories for at least two
reasons:
o They represent a foundation from which contemporary
theories have grown
o Practicing managers still regularly use these theories and their
terminology in explaining employee motivation

5.3.1.Hierarchy of needs theory
Higher-order Needs
(Self-Actualization,
Esteem and Social)
Lower-order Needs
(Safety and
Physiological)
The most well-known theory of motivation is Abraham

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Every human being, there
exists a hierarchy of five needs (mentioned above)

5.3.2. Theory X and Theory Y
• Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human

beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the
other basically positive, labeled Theory Y
o Under Theory X, managers believe that employees inherently
dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced
into performing it
o Theory Y, managers assume that employees can view work as
being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average
person can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility

5.3.3. Two-factor Theory
• Psychologist Frederick Herzberg proposed the two-factor

theory, also called motivation-hygiene theory

• Individual’s relation to work is basic and that one’s attitude

toward work can very well determine success or failure
• Herzberg characterized conditions surrounding the job such
as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical
working conditions, relations with others, and job security as
hygiene factors
o When they’re adequate, people will not be dissatisfied;
neither will they be satisfied


• If we want to motivate people, Herzberg suggested

emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or with
outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional
opportunities, opportunities for growth, recognition, and so
on. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically
rewarding


5.3.4. McClelland’s Theory of needs
• McClellands theory of needs was developed by David

McClelland. The theory focuses on three needs:
o Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to suceed
o Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in
a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise
o Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships

• Of the three needs, McClelland focused most of their

attention on “nAch”.
o High achievers perform best when they perceive probability
of success as 0.5 (that is, when they estimate that they have a
50-50 chance of succeed)
o They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a
little

• According to McClelland:
o High achievers are successful in entrepreneurial activities
such as running their own businesses and managing self-
contained units within large organizations
o People with high achievement need are interested in how well
they do personally and not in influencing others to do well
o The needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related
to managerial success. Best managers are high in their need
for power and low in their need for affiliation

5.4. Contemporary theories of motivation
• Main theories:
o Cognitive Evaluation theory
o Goal-setting theory
o Self-efficacy theory
o Equity theory

5.4.1. Cognitive evaluation theory

5.4.2. Goal-setting theory
• A theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that

are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and
performance and shy goals have these effects
• Based on theory that intentions to work towards a goal are a
major source of motivation
• Goals give employee clear direction and awareness of
amount of effort and time needs to be spent on it
(acceptance)
• More difficult goals generate more motivation due to larger
effort expended in achieving them. Example: study patterns
for big tests differ from small ones

5.4.3. Self-efficacy theory
• Refers to belief that individual is capable of performing the

task
• High self-efficacy = more confidence in ability to succeed

• Goal-setting and Self-efficacy complement each other. e.g,.

difficult task raises self-efficacy due to raising of confidence

• Intelligence and personality (conscientiousness and

emotional stability) are important to determine whether a
person has high self-efficacy (negated by Bandura)

• How to increase Self-efficacy – Albert Bandura

o Enactive mastery: Derived from experience from performing
the task
o Vicarious modeling: Achieved by seeing someone else
successfully complete the job
o Verbal persuasion: Being told you can do it until you believe
it too
o Arousal: being confident and “psyched up” in the correct
situation

5.4.4. Equity theory
• Proposes that the balance between input and output affects

motivation levels
o Job inputs: effort, experience, education, competence, etc
o Job outputs: salary levels, raises, recognition, etc

5.4.4. Equity theory
• Referent used influences theory:

o Self-inside: Employee’s experience in different position
within company
o Self-outside: Employees experiences in situation/position
outside current organization
o Other-inside: Another individual/group inside employee’s
organization
o Other outside: Another individual/group outside employee’s
organization

5.5. Expectation theory – Victor Vroom
• presented by Vroom and extended by Porter and Lawler

• Expectancy theory focuses on how employees decide what
behaviors to engage in on the job and how much effort to
exert


• Three main concepts (relationship)

oEffort-performance relationship (expectancy): an employee’s
perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain
level of performance
o Performance-reward relationship (instrumentality): an
employee’s perception about the extent to which a certain level
of performance will lead to the attainment of a particular
outcome
o Rewards-personal goals relationship (valence): degree to which
organizational rewards satisfy individual’s personal goals or
needs (how desirable an outcome is to an employee)
Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence combine to determine
motivation
5.6. Creating a motivation work setting
• Finding solutions to performance problems

o Lack of ability
o Lack of motivation
o Lack of both

5.6. Creating a motivation work setting
• Improving performance
Low Ability High
Misdirected effort Solid performers
coaching/ frequent Reward good performance/
High performance feedback/ goal identify development
setting/ training/ restructured opportunities/ provide honest,
job assignment direct feedback
Motivation
Deadwood Underutilizes
Withholding pay increases/ Give honest, direct feedback/
demotion/ outplacement/ counseling/ team building and
Low firing/ specific, direct conflict resolution/ link rewards
feedback on performance to performance outcomes/
problems training/ manage stress levels

5.7. Job issues you may face
• Inefficiency
• Job provides little variety, autonomy, or motivation
o Job: a set of related duties
o Position: the set of duties (job) performed by a particular
person

5.7. Job issues you may face
• Job design
o The way the elements in a job are organized
o is the process of linking specific tasks to specific jobs and
deciding what techniques, equipment, and procedures should
be used to perform those tasks

5.8. Work follow analysis
Raw Inputs
What materials, data, and
information are needed?
Output
Equipment Activity What product,
What special equipment, What tasks are information, or
facilities, and systems are required in the service is
needed? production of the provided? How is
output? the output
measured?
Human Resources
What knowledge, skills, and
abilities are needed by those
performing the tasks?

• Job description: a list of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities

(TDRs) that a particular job entails
• Job specifications: a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities,
and other characteristics (KSAOs) that an individual must
have to perform a particular job

• Job design
o Design for efficiency
o Design for motivation
 Job characteristics model
 Job enlargement (through job extension or job rotation) and
job enrichment
 Self-managing work teams, Flexible work schedules &
Telework
o Design for safety and health
o Design for mental capacity


• Design for efficiency

o Industrial engineering: the study of jobs to find the simplest
way to structure work in order to maximize efficiency
 Through methods such as time-and-motion studies, the
industrial engineer creates jobs that are relatively simple and
typically repetitive
 These jobs may bore workers because they are so simple

• Design for motivation

o Working motivation: defined as the psychological forces
within a person that determine the direction of that person’s
behavior in an organization, effort level, and persistence in
the face of obstacles

• Job characteristics model:

o An approach to job design that aims to identify
characteristics that make jobs intrinsically motivating and
the consequences of those characteristics

• Job characteristics model (Richard Hackman & Greg Oldham):

o Skill variety: is the extent to which a job requires an employee
to use a number of different skills, abilities or talents
o Task identity: the extent to which a job involves performing a
whole piece of work from its beginning to its end
o Task significance: is the extent to which a job has an impact on
the lives or work of other people in or out of the organization
o Autonomy: is the degree to which a job allows an employee the
freedom and independence to schedule work and decide how to
carry it out
o Feedback: is the extent to which performing a job provides an
employee with clear information about his or her effectiveness

• According to the Job characteristics model, the more of each

of these characteristics a job has, the more motivating the job
will be


Core dimensions Psychological states Work and personal outcomes
Skill variety Experienced • High intrinsic

meaningfulness
Task identity motivation
of the work
Task significance • High job performance
Experienced
• High job satisfaction
Autonomy responsibility for
work outcomes • Low absenteeism and
Feedback turnover
Knowledge of
results
Individual differences that affect the

relationships proposed in this model:
growth-need strength/ knowledge and
skills/ satisfaction with the work context

• Ways to create such jobs include:

o Job enlargement
o Job extension
o Job rotation
o Job enrichment
o Self-managing work teams
o Flexible work schedules
o Job sharing
o Telework


• Design for safety and health:

o Employers may seek to reduce physical strain on the workers
 Ergonomic design may involve modifying equipment to
reduce the physical demands of performing certain jobs or
redesigning the jobs themselves to reduce strain

• Design for mental capacity:

o Employers may seek to reduce mental as well as physical
strain
 Limiting the amount of information and memorization
involved
 Using adequate lighting, easy-to-read gauges and displays,
simple-to-operate equipment, and clear instructions in the
jobs
 Computer software
 Selecting employees with the necessary abilities to handle a
job’s mental demands

Discussion Questions
• Case study 1: The big easy (page 230, reference book:

Stephen P. Robbins, and Timothy A. Judge, Organizational
Behavior, 15th ed., Pearson Education, 2013, ISNB-13: 978-
0-13-283487-2).
• Case study 2: Bullying bosses (page 231, 232, reference
book: Stephen P. Robbins, and Timothy A. Judge,
Organizational Behavior, 15th ed., Pearson Education, 2013,
ISNB-13: 978-0-13-283487-2).
• Case study 3: Bonuses can backfire (page 265, reference
book: Stephen P. Robbins, and Timothy A. Judge,
Organizational Behavior, 15th ed., Pearson Education, 2013,
ISNB-13: 978-0-13-283487-2).

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Chapter 5

1. Appreciate why motivation is of central importance in

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 2

• What is work motivation?

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 3

• Three key elements of work motivation:

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 4

• The distinction between motivation and performance

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 5

• What is the relationship between motivation and

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 6

• Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 7

• The key challenge facing managers in terms of motivation is

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 8

• Employees are concerned with obtaining outcomes from the

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 9

• The motivation equation

Inputs Performance Outcomes

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 10

• Theories about work motivation provide answers to the

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 11

• The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 12

The most well-known theory of motivation is Abraham

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 13

• Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 14

• Psychologist Frederick Herzberg proposed the two-factor

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 15

• Individual’s relation to work is basic and that one’s attitude

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 16

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 17

• If we want to motivate people, Herzberg suggested

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 18

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 19

• McClellands theory of needs was developed by David

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 20

• Of the three needs, McClelland focused most of their

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 21

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 22

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 23

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 24

• A theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 25

• Refers to belief that individual is capable of performing the

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 26

• Goal-setting and Self-efficacy complement each other. e.g,.

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 27

• Intelligence and personality (conscientiousness and

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 28

• How to increase Self-efficacy – Albert Bandura

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 29

• Proposes that the balance between input and output affects

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 30

• Referent used influences theory:

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 31

• presented by Vroom and extended by Porter and Lawler

Organizational Behavior – Working Motivation 32