• Loss of fiber optics

• Attenuation
• Bending loss
• Absorption loss
• Dispersion loss
• Scattering loss
• Attenuation
• Attenuation means of loss of light energy as the light of pulse travels from one end of the
cable to other
• It is also called as signal loss or fiber loss
• It is also decides the number of repeaters required b/w transmitter and receiver
• Attenuation is directly proportional to the length of the cable
• Attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical output power to the input power in the fiber of
the length L .Attenuation is the loss of optical signal due to absorption, scattering, bending,
and other parameters of optical fiber over a long distance. when light is transmitted
through OFC, light intensity through the fiber optic decreases between transmitter and
receiver. Optical losses are measured by using Optical measuring instruments like OTDR and
Optical power meter loss in fiber is measured in decibels per km (db/Km). Some factors are
discussed below.
Absoroption loss

Absoroption loss is due to the presence of metal particle in the glass component of a fiber
optic cable. These impurities absorb the light travelling through the material
Absoroption of light due to heating of ion

There are two types of absorption loss

• Intrinsic
• extrinsic
Scattering loss
• When light ray interact with a particle with different density level and sent in all direction
without any absorption
• Types of scattering loss
• Linear scattering
 Linear scattering occurs in low power densities
 The incident light frequency and scattered light frequency is same
 No frequency shift during scattering
• Rayleigh scattering (wavelength dependent)
• Occurs when inhomogenities size of fiber is smaller than the wavelength light
• It occurs in both upward and backward direction
• When light travels to the fiber it interacts with the density fluctuated areas and get scattered
in all direction
• Ass wavelength increases , rayleigh scattering loss decrease
• Rayleigh scattering is a scattering of light by particles much smaller than the wavelength of
the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules. Rayleigh scattering is a process in
which light is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive index, such as a
particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation.

• Mie-scattering
• Mie scattering is a scattering of light by particles approximately equal to the wavelength of
the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules.
• Non perfect cylindrical structure of the fiber and imperfections like irregularities in the core-
cladding interface, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles may create linear scattering
which is termed as Mie scattering
• Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic scattering (elastic scattering is also
called Linear scattering) processes, in which the energy (and thus wavelength and frequency)
of the light is not substantially changed.

• How to minimize Mie-scattering

• Removing imperfection due to glass manufacturing process
•  Carefully controlled extrusion(To push or thrust out) and coating of the fiber
•  
• Non-linear scattering

• non linear scattering the optical power from one mode is transferred in either the forward or
backward direction to the same, or other modes, at different frequencies. The two dominant
types of non linear scattering are :
•  
• a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering and
• b) Stimulated Raman Scattering.
• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
• This is defined as the modulation of light through thermal molecular vibration within the fiber.
The scattered light contains upper and lower side bands along with incident light frequency.
An incident photon produces a scattered photon as well as a photon of acoustic frequency.
The frequency shift is maximum in the backward direction and it is reduced to zero in the
forward direction. The threshold optical power for Brillion scattering is proportional to 
• d2λ2αB
• Stimulated Raman Scattering:
• Here, the scattered light consists of a scattered photon and a high frequency optical photon.
Further, this occurs both in the forward and backward direction in the optical fiber. The
threshold optical power for Raman scattering is about three orders of magnitude higher than
the Brillouin threshold for the given fiber, The threshold optical power for Raman scattering is
proportional to 
• d2λ2αR
Dispersion loss
When light emits from the source of light, it contain multiple wavelength and speeds , spreading
of the signal due to the different speed of light rays . At higher bit rate and over longer
distance , chromatic dispersion limit maximum communication link length in single mode
It generally in SMF
• The material dispersion can be minimized at certain wavelengths say 870nm, 1300 nm and
1550 nm; these wavelengths are termed Zero Dispersion wavelengths(ZDW).
• Whether light wavelength is lesser than Zero Dispersion wavelengths , it travels slower and
when it is higher than ZDW it travels faster. Thus the speed is altered and adjusted in such a
way that all the waves passing through the fiber will move with constant speed and hence
the material dispersion is minimized.
Model dispersion
• Many modes are propagating, diff length and diff velocities will take diff time to propagate
through the fiber , which leads internal modal dispersion
• Its generally in MMF
Bend loss
• Bend loss is generated improper handling of fiber optic . Its caused by fiber bend . There are
two types of bending loss
• Macro bending loss
• Micro bending loss
• Macro bending loss
• If the radius of the core is large compared to fiber diameter, it may cause large-curvature at
the position where the fiber cable turns at the corner. At these corners the light will not
satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence it escapes out from the fiber. This
is called as macroscopic / macro bending losses.
• Also note that this loss is negligible for small bends

• Micro-bends losses
• Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities or micro bends inside the fiber as
shown. This micro bends in fiber appears due to non uniform pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber or even during the manufacturing itself. This lead to loss of light by leakage
through the fiber.
External losses of fiber
Connector loss
• APC vs UPC vs FLAT vs PC
the main difference between UPC and APC connector is the fiber end face. UPC connectors are
polished with no angle, but APC connectors feature a fiber end face that is polished at an 8-
degree angle. With UPC connectors, any reflected light is reflected straight back towards the
light source. However, the angled end face of the APC connector causes reflected light to
reflect at an angle into the cladding versus straight back toward the source. This causes some
differences in return loss. Therefore, UPC connector is usually required to have at least -50dB
return loss or higher, while APC connector return loss should be -60dB or higher. In general,
the higher the return loss the better the performance of the mating of two connectors.
Besides the fiber end face, another more obvious difference is the color. Generally, UPC
connectors are blue while APC connectors are green.
Multimode fiber UPC connector are GREY
• Application Considerations of UPC and APC Connectors
• There is no doubt that the optical performance of APC connectors is better than UPC
connectors. In the current market, the APC connectors are widely used in applications such as
FTTx, passive optical network (PON) and wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) that are
more sensitive to return loss. But besides optical performance, the cost and simplicity also
should be taken into consideration. So it’s hard to say that one connector beats the other. In
fact, whether you choose UPC or APC will depend on your particular need. With those
applications that call for high precision optical fiber signaling, APC should be the first
consideration, but less sensitive digital systems will perform equally well using UPC.
• Fiberstore offers a variety of high speed fiber optic patch cables with LC, SC, ST, FC etc.
connectors (UPC and APC polish).
• Insertion loss and return loss
Different polishing styles determines the quality of optical fiber, which results in different
performances regarding the connector's insertion loss and return loss. Insertion loss refers
to the signal loss caused by the connector or cable. In general, the typical insertion loss of
PC, UPC, and APC connectors should be less than 0.3dB. Compared with APC connectors,
UPC connectors are usually easier to achieve low insertion loss due to the smaller air gap.
Insertion loss can also be caused by a tiny particle of dust trapped between the connector
end-faces. A single dry debris particle could even damage the fibers and ferrules.

Return loss, also known as reflection loss, is a parameter representing the signal reflection
performance. Usually expressed in negative dB value, the higher the value of the setting,
the better. The end faces of APC connectors are beveled, so the return loss of APC
connectors is usually better than UPC connectors. In general, the return loss of the PC fiber
cable is -40dB. UPC return loss is higher relative to PC, generally at -55dB (or even higher).
APC industry-standard return loss is -65dB. With the UPC connector, any reflected light is
directly reflected back to the light source. The beveled end face of the APC connector allows
the reflected light at an angle into the cladding instead of reflecting it directly to the light
sources. This is the main factor that causes the return loss to differ.
Applications
PC is the most common grinding method for optical fiber connectors, which is widely used in
telecommunication operator equipment. UPC is commonly used in Ethernet network
equipment (such as ODF fiber distribution frames, media converters and fiber switches, etc.),
digital, cable television and telephone systems. APC is generally used in optical radio
frequency applications such as CATV, and also in passive optical applications, such as PON
network structures or passive optical local area networks.
All losses are not equal, and a loss can come in many forms, such as a power loss, connectivity
loss, insertion loss, and even a return loss. Furthermore, in the field of electronics, losses such
as insertion loss are an essential performance parameter measurement in designs consisting
of fiber-optic links
• Insertion loss and return loss

• Insertion Loss = 40dBm – 39.54dBm  = 0.46dB

• Return Loss = 40dBm – 30dBm  = 10dB
• What is Insertion Loss?
• The loss of signal, which occurs along the length of a fiber optic link, is called insertion loss.
This particular measurement parameter is expressed in decibels and should always be a
positive number. However, should, does not mean always, and if by chance, it is negative, that
is not a favorable measurement parameter.
Insertion loss is, however, a natural occurrence that occurs with all types of transmissions,
whether it is data or electrical. hese losses also occur at each connection point along the line,
including splices and connectors.
we express insertion loss in dBs (decibels), and ordinarily, it is a positive number since it indicates
how much signal loss by the lower the number equals a better insertion loss performance; for
example, an insertion loss of 0.3dB is better than 0.5dB.comparing the input power to the
output power
In some instances, an insertion loss may appear as a negative parameter measurement.
However, if this is the case, a negative insertion loss means that there is an issue, one of
which usually indicates an improper reference setting. For instance, if a reference cable
requires cleaning when setting the zero benchmark, and you clean it prior to testing, the
insertion loss may show a gain and possibly indicate a negative measurement parameter..
• What is Return Loss?
• The measurement of the amount of light that is reflected back toward the source is called
Return loss, and its unit of expression is also in decibels (dBs).

• Splice loss -
Fusion loss –
Fusion splicing is the act of joining two optical fibers end-to-end . The goal is to fuse the two
fibers together in such a way that light passing through the fibers is not scattered or reflected
back by the splice, Fusion splicing is to use high-temperature heat generated by electric arc
and fuse two glass fibers together (end to end with fiber core aligned precisely). The tips of
two fibers are butted together and heated so they melt together. This is normally done with a
fusion splicer, which mechanically aligns the two fiber ends, then applies a spark across the
fiber tips to fuse them together. Many telecom and CATV companies invest in fusion splicing
for their long haul single mode networks,
• 1 2.

• 3 4.
• Mechanical splice
• Step 1 and 2 are same
• 3 4
• With mechanical splice, the typical insertion loss (IL) is higher—
between 0.2 dB and 0.75 dB. This is because the two fibers are simply
aligned and not physically joined. (Insertion loss is the loss of signal
power resulting from the insertion of a splice in optical fiber.)
• Fusion splice offers lower insertion loss and better performance,
because fusion splice provides a continuous connection between two
fibers. The typical loss in fusion splice is < 0.1 dB, providing better
protection against cable failure and weak signals.
• Overall, the advantages of fusion splice are primarily lower loss and
better reflectance performance. It is in these areas that it surpasses
mechanical splice. Many telecommunications and CATV companies
invest in fusion splice for their long haul single-mode networks, but
will still use mechanical splice for shorter, local cable runs
• Optical power loss
• Decibel A decibel (dB) is a unit used to express relative differences in signal strength. A
decibel is expressed as the base 10 logarithm of the ratio of the power of two signals, as
shown here:
• The power meter test is used to determine light power loss in a fiber optic link. The measured
unit of light power is the milliwatt (mW). However, a more convenient form of measurement
used is called the decibel (dB
• dB = 10 x Log10 (P1/P2)

• The light power loss of this optical fiber is 3 dB

• For example, when direct line (LD) optical input into the fiber is
0dBm and output power is -15dBm, optical loss for the fiber is
calculated as:
Input Output Optical Loss 0dBm - (-15dBm) =15dB
• Input Output Optical Loss 0dBm - (-15dBm) =15dB In the power
conversion table, 15dB for optical loss equals 96.8 percent of lost
optical power. Therefore, only 3.2 percent of optical power remains
when it travels through the fiber.
Dbm –
The dB unit is a logarithmic ratio of input and output levels and is therefore not absolute (i.e.,
has no units). An absolute measure of power in decibels can be made in the dBm form. The
dBm unit is a logarithmic ratio of the measured power to 1 mW
The same result in loss can be achieved using the dBm. In the previous example, light power input by the source to
the optical fiber is 0.1 mW, which is -10 dBm:

• The light power received by the meter from the optical fiber’s output is 0.05 mW, which is —13 dBm:
•  
• The light power loss in the fiber is equal to the light source power minus the received meter light power
• Fiber link power budget
• Power budget is the difference between the minimum (worst case) transmitter output power
and the maximum (worst case) receiver input required.
• the system contains the transmitter and receiver, the optical link contains optical amplifier, 4
optical connectors, and 5 splices. The following table presents attenuation or gain of each
component.
• Tx power:   3dBm
• Connector loss: 0.15dB
• Splice loss: 0.15dB
• Amplifier gain: 10dB
• Fiber optic loss: 0.2 dB/km
• The total attenuation of this link PL is the sum of:
• Fiber optic loss: (30 km + 50 km) ×0.2dB/km = 16 dB
• Attenuation of connectors: 4×0.15 dB = 0.60 dB
• Attenuation of splices: 5×0.15 dB = 0.75 dB
• So PL = 16 Db + 0.60 Db + 0.75 Db = 17.35 dB
• the total gain of the link is generated by optical amplifier, which is 10 dB in this case. So PG =
10 dB
• Considering link degradation, power margin should be calculated as well. A good safety
margin  PM = 6 dB
• To select the receiver’s sensitivity at the end of the optical path, it is sufficient to rearrange
and solve the equation. So:
• Ptx – Prx < PL – PG + PM
• Prx > Ptx – PL + PG – PM
• Prx > 3 dBm – 17.35 dB +10 dB – 6 dB
• Prx > -10.35 dB
• The receiver should provide sensitivity better than -10.35 dBm.