FAQ’S IN

STATISTICS
WILFREDO P. MARIÑO
 Top 10 FAQ’s in STATISTICS

1. What is statistics in research?

2. What constitutes an adequate or sufficient size
for a sample?
3. What are the different sampling techniques
frequently utilized in research?
4. How do we present the data collected?
5. How do we select the appropriate statistical
tools?
6. What is hypothesis (Null and Alternative), test
statistics, critical values, level of significance
and probability values?
7. Which is correct “Accept Ho” or “Fail to reject
Ho?
8. When do we reject the null hypothesis using
critical values or probability values?
9. What is the conclusion if the decision is “reject”
or “fail to reject” the null hypothesis?
10.What are the different statistical softwares that
can be utilize in data analysis?
1. WHAT IS STATISTICS IN RESEARCH?

Population
Census
Parameters
Sample

Survey
Statistics
 “Statistics is the mathematics of
collection, organization, and interpretation
of numerical data, especially the analysis
of population characteristics by inference
from sampling.“
American Heritage Dictionary
2. WHAT CONSTITUTES AN ADEQUATE
OR SUFFICIENT SIZE FOR A SAMPLE?

Samples should be as large as a

researcher can obtain with a reasonable
expenditure of time and energy
- Fraenkel and Wallen
 SLOVIN’S FORMULA

N= number of population
n= number of sample
e= error tolerance
 SLOVIN’S FORMULA

N=1500
e= 5%= 0.05
 Province N n
Cavite 250 53 250 x 0.21 = 53

Laguna 180 38 180 x 0.21 = 38

Batangas 320 67 320 x 0.21 = 67

Rizal 600 126 600 x 0.21 = 126
Quezon 150 32 150 x 0.21 = 32
Total N=1500 n=316

𝑛 316
𝑘= = =0.21
𝑁 1500
 SAMPLE SIZE FORMULA

n = sample size
z = value from the normal table at a given
confidence level (at 95% c.l., z = 1.96)
p = % that an event would occur
q = % that event would not occur
e = margin of error (MOE)

Note: (p)(q) is at a maximum at p=0.5 and q=0.5

 SOLVING FOR SAMPLE SIZE
If : confidence level = 95%
e = + 8%
What is n?
QUANTIFYING SAMPLING
ERROR
n e
-------- ---------
100 + 10.0%
150 + 8.0
300 + 5.6
1,200 + 2.3
 For descriptive studies, a sample with a minimum
number of 100 is essential.
 For correlational studies, a sample of at least 50 is
deemed necessary to establish the existence of a
relationship.
 For experimental and causal-comparative studies, a
minimum of 30 individuals per group. Although
sometimes experimental studies with only 15
individuals per group can be defended if they are very
tightly controlled.
-Fraenkel and Wallen
3. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES FREQUENTLY UTILIZED IN
RESEARCH?
BASIC RANDOM SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster Random Sampling
Multi-Stage Random Sampling
 N I E
Z A V C
G S XR T
K Q P O
DW M
H YL
F UB J

W C
A N

Z V L

Simple Random Sampling

 B DF
A CE G
N ISK Q P
R
L O J H Y
M
WU VXZ
T

A D GE
I
N S H RP

U T V
Z

Stratified Random Sampling

 A BC
D E F G H
I J K L M N
OP Q R S T
UV WX Y
Z

B E H
K N Q
T W Z

Systematic Random Sampling

 A F BI D
MQ H
CJ
N K G
PO E L

A F KG
MQ E L
D
H

Cluster Random Sampling

 A F BI D
MQ H
CJ
N KG
PO E L

A F KG G
MQ E L F Q E
D
H D

Two-Stage Random Sampling

NON RANDOM SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling
4. HOW DO WE PRESENT THE DATA
COLLECTED?

Textual Twenty-five out of 90 or 27.8 of the

respondents are male while 65 or
72.2 percent are female.
Sex f %
Tabular Male 25 27.8
Female 65 72.2
Total 90 100.0

Graphical Male
Female
 Summary Measures

Location Variation Skewness Kurtosis

Maximum Range
Minimum
Variance
Percentile
Quartile
Decile Standard Deviation

Central Interquartile
Tendency Range

Median Coefficient of
Variation
Mean Mode
5. HOW DO WE SELECT THE
APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TOOLS?
1. Is there a significant difference in the LET
performance of students of URS in terms of sex?
......Independent t-test!
2. How do the stress level of URS Graduate School
students compare when grouped according to age?
……ANOVA!
3. In an intact group experiment, how do the pretest
scores and posttest scores differ?
.....Dependent t-test!
5. HOW DO WE SELECT THE
APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TOOLS?
The following are the primary considerations;
•The statistical test is based on the problem stated
for which the research is intended;
•Sampling design and technique used in
determining the subject and respondents are most
of the times considered in determining the statistical
test to be used in the study;

•The type of numerical data, level of

measurement, and distribution of data also
suggest the type of statistical test to be utilized.
• Most of the statistical procedures we have
used or utilized in our thesis or statistical
consultations are known as parametric
tests.
• Common parametric tests are z-test, t-
test and ANOVA.
• For a statistical procedure to be
parametric, either we assume that the
parent population is at least
approximately normally distributed or
we rely on the central limit theorem to
give us a normal approximation.
 The nonparametric tests or distribution-
free tests, as they are also known, do not
depend on the distribution of the population
being sampled.
The method require only that the parent
population to be continuous. Non parametric
method can be used where normality
assumptions cannot be made.
 Design Parametric Nonparametric
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
One-Group One-Group
Chi-Square Goodness of Fit
Design t-test
Test

t-test Mann-Whitney U Test

Two-Group
Independent Chi-Square Test
Design
Pretest and
t-test Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
Posttest
Dependent McNemar Test
Design
Kruskal-Wallis Formula
Three or More
ANOVA Chi-Square Test of
Groups Design
Independence
Spearman rho
Correlational
Pearson’s r Chi-Square Test of
Study
Independence
6. WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS (NULL AND
ALTERNATIVE), TEST STATISTICS,
CRITICAL VALUES, LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE AND PROBABILITY
VALUES?
 Null Hypothesis

• denoted by Ho
• the statement being tested
• it represents what the experimenter
doubts to be true
 Alternative Hypothesis
• denoted by Ha or H1
• Is the statement that must be true if the
null hypothesis is false
• the operational statement of the theory
that the experimenter believes to be true
and wishes to prove
• Is sometimes referred to as the research
hypothesis
 Test Statistics
• A random variable whose value is
calculated from the sample data
and is used in making the
decision “fail to reject Ho” or
“reject Ho”. These are the
computed z-value, t-value, F-
value, chi-square value, and
others.
Test Statistics
 Critical Value
• It is the value or values that separate the
critical region from the values of the test
statistic that would not lead to rejection
of the null hypothesis. This is based on
the level of significance and degree of
freedom. We need a table of statistics to
determine the critical value that can be
found at the appendices of statistics
books.
Critical Value
 Level of Significance
• It represents the chance of rejecting
a true null hypothesis.
• Most of the times we will set the
significance criterion at 0.05.
• This means that if there is no effect
in the population, the measured
effect in the sample must be so large
as to occur less than 5% of the time
by chance alone.
 Probability Value
• It is the probability that the test
statistic could be the value or a more
extreme value (in the direction of the
alternative hypothesis) when the null
hypothesis is true.
• It is the probability of obtaining
sample mean difference as far apart
as we have, if the null hypothesis
were true.
Probability Value
Decision Rule
7. WHICH IS CORRECT, “ACCEPT HO” OR “FAIL TO
REJECT HO”

Some texts say “accept the null hypothesis”

instead of “fail to reject the null hypothesis.”

Whether we use the term accept or fail to

reject, we should recognize that we are not
proving the null hypothesis; we are merely
saying that the sample evidence is not strong
enough to warrant rejection of the null
hypothesis.
8. WHEN TO REJECT THE NULL
HYPOTHESIS USING CRITICAL VALUES?

 Ifthe computed test statistic is less

than or equal to the critical value, the
decision is “Fail to reject Ho”, on the
other hand if the test statistic is greater
than the critical value, the decision is
“Reject Ho”.
Test Statistics ≤ Critical Value “Fail to Reject Ho”
Test Statistics > Critical Value “Reject Ho”
8. WHEN TO REJECT THE NULL
HYPOTHESIS USING PROBABILITY
VALUES?
If the p-value is less than or equal to
the level of significance (alpha=0.05),
then the decision must be “Reject Ho”.
If the p-value is greater than the level of
significance alpha (alpha=0.05), then the
decision must be “Fail to reject Ho”.
P-value ≤ Level of Significance (0.05) “Reject Ho”
P-value > Level of Significance (0.05) “Fail to Reject Ho”

Alpha at 0.05
9. WHAT IS THE CONCLUSION IF THE
DECISION IS REJECT OR FAIL TO REJECT
HO?
Reject Ho
There is a sufficient evidence at the alpha level of
significance to show that…(the meaning of
alternative hypothesis).”

Fail to reject Ho
There is no sufficient evidence at the alpha level
of significance to show that…(the meaning of the
alternative hypothesis.”
 As shown, there is a sufficient evidence at the 0.05 level of
significance to show that there is a significant difference between
the performance of learners before and after their exposure to the
intervention with respect to Lesson 1 and Lesson 3.
On the other hand, there is no sufficient evidence to show that
there is a significant difference between the performance of
learners before and after their exposure to the intervention with
respect to lesson 2,
 As shown, there is no sufficient evidence at
the 0.05 level of significance to show that there
is a significant difference on the performance of
teachers in the Division of Antipolo City in terms
of sex.
 As shown, there is a sufficient evidence
at the 0.05 level of significance to show that
there is a significant difference on the
performance of teachers in the Division of
Antipolo City in terms of district.
 As shown, there is a sufficient evidence at the 0.05
level of significance to show that high school grade,
college grade and family income are predictors of the
LET Score.
On the other hand, there is no sufficient evidence to
show that age is a determinant of the Let Score.
 Based on the result, the prediction equation will be,
LET= 8.373+0.286 HSG+0.566 CG -0.146 Age+ 0.374 FI
 The coefficients indicates that on the average, each
point in high school grade was associated with a LET
score increase of 0.286. Every point in college grade
would have 0.566 increase in LET score. Each year in
age would have a 0.146 decrease in LET score, and
every peso in family income would mean 0.374 increase
in LET score.
10. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT
STATISTICAL SOFTWARES THAT
CAN BE UTILIZE IN DATA ANALYSIS?
• SAS • IBM SPSS
• OCTAVE • Minitab
• PSPP • SAS
• ADaMSoFT • JMP
• R • Genstat
• pbdR • STATISTICA
• Shogun • STATA
• CSPro • SigmaStat
• CumFreq • Unistat
†AD MAJOREM DEI
GLORIAM†
LET’S TRY