THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

A. KABWE
 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• The cardiovascular system consists of the

Heart and the vascular system.
• It is also referred to as the blood vascular or
circulatory system.
 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

• At the end of the session student should be

able to demonstrate an understanding of the
structure and the function of the
cardiovascular system
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

• At the end of the session students should be

able to:
• Describe the position of the heart.
• Describe the structure of the heart.
• Describe the function of the heart
• Outline the of blood vessels
• Describe the types of blood vessels
• Describe the physiology of the heart
• Describe the conducting system of the heart
• Explain the cardiac cycle
• Explain the heart sounds
• Explain the heart rate.
 The Heart
• The heart is a roughly cone-shaped hollow
muscular organ.
• It is about 10 cm long and is about the size of
the owner's fist.
• It weighs about 225 g in women and is heavier
in men (about 310 g).
 Position of the heart

• The heart lies in the thoracic cavity in the

mediastinum between the lungs.
• It lies obliquely, a little more to the left than the
right, and presents a base above, and an apex
below.
• The apex is about 9 cm to the left of the midline
at the level of the 5th intercostal space, that is a
little below the nipple and slightly nearer the
midline.
• The base extends to the level of the 2nd rib.
• Therefore we can safely say the heart extends
from the level of the second rib to the level of
sixth rib
• It is bordered:
• Superiorly — the great blood vessels, i.e. the
aorta, superior vena cava, pulmonary artery
and pulmonary veins
• laterally by the Lungs
• posteriorly the oesophagus, trachea, left and
right bronchus, descending aorta, inferior vena
cava and the vertebral column,
• anteriorly by the sternum, ribs and intercostal
muscles.
• inferiorly rests on the central tendon diaphram
 Chambers of the heart
• It has got four chambers
• The right and left ventricles which are thick
walled
• The right and left Atria which are thin walled
• The atria are separated by interatrial septum
• The ventricles are separated by the
interventricular septum
•
 Chambers con’t…
• The atria and the ventricles are separated by
the atrioventricular septum
• The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated
blood to the body.
• The right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs
CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
 COVERINGS OF THE HEART
• The pericardium covers the heart and large blood
vessels attached to the heart
• It is divided into three parts.
– The visceral pericardium
– Innermost membrane
– Directly on the heart
– The parietal pericardium
– Membrane on top of the viscera pericadium
– The fibrous pericardium
– Outer most covering
 Layers of the heart
• The heart has three layers that form the heart wall.
• The epicardium is the outer most layer which is
continuous with the viscera pericardium membrane
• It comprises fat tissue that cutions the heart.
• The middle layer is the myocardium which
comprises cardiac muscle tissue
• The inner layer the endocardium lines the
myocardium and double folds to form the valves
• It is smooth to allow smooth flow of blood.
 Valves of the heart
• It is has four valves
Cuspid valves
Tricuspid(right atrioventricular)-prevents back flow
of blood to the right atrium from the right ventricle
Bicuspid or mitral(left atrioventricular)-prevents
back flow of blood from left ventricle to left atrium
Semi lunar valves
Pulmonary valve-prevent back flow of blood into the
right ventricle from pulmonary trunk.
Aortic valve-prevents back flow of blood into the left
ventricle from the aorta
The left atrioventricular valve: A. Valve is open. B. Valve is closed.
 VALVES CON’T...
• Chordae tendaneae prevent cuspid valves
from invertion
• They are strands of fibrous connective tissue
• They extend from flaps of cuspids to the
papillarymuscle
• The papillary muscle are columns of
myocardium
• They project to lower parts of the ventricles
 The flow of blood through the heart

• The two largest veins of the body, the superior

and inferior venae cavae, empty their contents
into the right atrium.
• This blood passes via the right atrioventricular
valve into the right ventricle, and from there it
is pumped into the pulmonary artery or trunk
(the only artery in the body which carries
deoxygenated blood).
• The opening of the pulmonary artery is
guarded by the pulmonary valve, formed by
three semilunar cusps. 
• This valve prevents the back flow of blood
into the right ventricle when the ventricular
muscle relaxes.
• After leaving the heart the pulmonary artery
divides into left and right pulmonary arteries,
which carry the venous blood to the lungs
where exchange of gases takes place: carbon
dioxide is excreted and oxygen is absorbed.
• Two pulmonary veins from each lung carry
oxygenated blood back to the left atrium.
• Blood then passes through the left
atrioventricular valve into the left ventricle,
and from there it is pumped into the aorta, the
first artery of the general circulation.
• The opening of the aorta is guarded by the
aortic valve, formed by three semilunar cusps.
• From this sequence of events it can be seen
that the blood passes from the right to the left
side of the heart via the lungs, or pulmonary
circulation.
• However, it should be noted that both atria
contract at the same time and this is followed
by the simultaneous contraction of both
ventricles.
Blood supply to the Myocardium.

• The myocardium has an extensive blood

supply
• The supply comes from the left and right
coronary arteries
• They branch from the ascending aorta
immediately distal to the aortic valve
• The coronary arteries form a network of
capillaries
Blood supply to the Myocardium.
Con’t…
• Venous drainage is through small veins that
join to form coronary sinus.
• The coronary sinus opens in the right atrium.
 Physiology of the Heart

• The heart is a pump .

•It pumps blood as the myocardium contracts
•The blood is pumped to the Lungs through
pulmonary circulation for oxygenation .
• The blood is pumped to the rest of the body
through the systemic circulation
The conducting system of the heart
• The heart has an intrinsic system whereby the
cardiac muscle is automatically stimulated to
contract without the need for a nerve supply
from the brain.
• However, the intrinsic system can be
stimulated or depressed by nerve impulses
initiated in the brain and by circulating
chemicals including hormones.
The conducting system of the heart cont..

• There are small groups of specialised

neuromuscular cells in the myocardium which
initiate and conduct impulses causing
coordinated and synchronised contraction of
the heart muscle.
The conducting system of the heart cont..

Sino atrial (SA) node (Pacemaker)

• Located in wall of right atrium near the
opening of the superior vena cava
• It generates impulse
• It is the natural pacemaker of the heart because
it normally initiates impulses more rapidly
than other groups of neuromuscular cells.
• It sends impulse to AV node
 Atrioventricular node (AV node)

• This small mass of neuromuscular tissue is

situated in the wall of the atrial septum near the
atrioventricular valves (just above the ventricles)
• Normally the AV node is stimulated by impulses
that sweep over the atrial myocardium. However,
it too is capable of initiating impulses that cause
contraction but at a slower rate than the SA node.
• It causes the atria to contract
• It sends impulse to the bundle of His
  Bundle of His

• This is a mass of specialised fibres that originate

from the AV node.
• The AV bundle crosses the fibrous ring that
separates atria and ventricles then, at the upper end
of the ventricular septum, it divides into right and
left bundle branches.
• Within the ventricular myocardium the branches
break up into fine fibres, called the Purkinje fibres.
• They sends impulse to Purkinje fibers
 Purkinje fibers

• Located on the lateral walls of ventricles

• They cause the ventricles to contract
• Bundle of His and Purkinje fibres transmit
impulses to apex of myocardium from AV
node.
• Heart contraction begin from apex then spread
to the whole heart
•  
 Nerve supply to the heart
• In addition to the intrinsic impulses generated
within the conducting system described above,
the heart is influenced by autonomic nerves
originating in the cardiovascular centre in the
medulla oblongata which reach it through the
autonomic nervous system.
• These consist of parasympathetic and
sympathetic nerves and their actions are
antagonistic to one another.
 Nerve supply to the heart -cont..
• The vagus nerves (parasympathetic) supply mainly the
SA and AV nodes and atrial muscle. Parasympathetic
stimulation reduces the rate at which impulses are
produced, decreasing the rate and force of the
heartbeat.
• The sympathetic nerves supply the SA and AV nodes
• and the myocardium of atria and ventricles.
Sympathetic
• stimulation increases the rate and force of the
heartbeat.
 Factors affecting heart rate

• Autonomic nervous system. As described

above, the rate at which the heart beats is a
balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic
activity and this is the most important factor in
determining heart rate.
• Circulating chemicals. The hormones adrenaline
and noradrenaline, secreted by the adrenal
medulla, have the same effect as sympathetic
stimulation, that is they increase the heart rate
• Other hormones including thyroxine increase
heart rate by their metabolic effect.
• Some drugs, dissolved gases and electrolytes
in the blood may either increase or decrease
the heart rate.
• Position. When the person is upright, the heart
rate is usually faster than when lying down.
• Exercise. Active muscles need more blood than
resting muscles and this is achieved by an
increased heart rate and selective vasodilatation.
• Emotional states. During excitement, fear or
anxiety the heart rate is increased. Other effects
mediated by the sympathetic nervous system
may be present.
• Gender. The heart rate is faster in women than
men.
• Age. In babies and small children the heart
rate is more rapid than in older children and
adults.
 The Cardiac Cycle
• One heartbeat makes one cardiac cycle
• Atria contract and relax
• Ventricles contract and relax
• Right atrium contracts
• Tricuspid valve opens
• Blood fills right ventricle
 Cardiac Cycle Con’t…
• Right ventricle contracts
• Tricuspid valve closes
• Pulmonary semilunar valve opens
• Blood flows into pulmonary artery
• Left atrium contracts
• Bicuspid valve opens
• Blood fills left ventricle
 Cardiac Cycle Con’t…
• Left ventricle contracts
• Bicuspid valve closes
• Aortic semilunar valve opens
• Blood is pushed into aorta
• At a normal heart rate the cardiac cycle lasts
for 0.8 seconds.
• The contraction phase of the cycle is called
Systole.
 Cardiac Cycle con’t…
• Diastole is the relaxation phase of the cycle.
The conducting system is responsible for the
contraction and relaxation of the heart.
 HEART SOUNDS

• They are associated with the heart beat

• They are due to vibrations of tissue and blood
due the closure of the valves
• There are two heart sounds that can clearly be
detected by stethoscope
• One cardiac cycle makes two heart sounds
(lub and dub) when valves in the heart snap
shut
 HEART SOUNDS CON’T…

Lub – First sound

• When the ventricles contract, the tricuspid
and bicuspid valves snap shut
Dub – Second sound
• When the atria contract and the pulmonary
and aortic valves snap shut
 THE HEART RATE

• SA node produces a constant rhythmic heart

rate
• Regulating factors affect the AV node to either
increase or decrease heart rate to adjust the
cardiac output.
• This meet the changing needs of the body.
• Changes are mostly mediated by the cardiac
centre in the medulla oblongata.
• It has both sympathetic and parasympathetic
components.
• Peripheral factors may affect heart rate like
emotions ,ion concentration and body
temperature
• Normal resting heart rate in an adult is 60 t0 80
beats per minute
• A rate less than 60 is bradycardia
• The child rate may be as high as 100 and infant as
high as 120 beat per minute
• The difference in the rate is related to size rather
than age .
• The smaller the size the higher the metabolic rate
and the higher the rate.
 CARDIAC CENTRE

• It is situated in the medulla oblongata.

• It regulates the rate at which the heart beat in
situations like exercise, body trauma.
• Changes are effected via sympathetic and vagus
nerve fibres that connect to the SA node.
• It also increases the stroke volume ( amount of blood
pumped by the heart).
• The two changes the cardiac output.
Cardiac centre
 BLOOD VESSELS

• They form the vascular system of the

cardiovascular
• There are three main types are the Arteries,
Veins and the Capillaries.
BLOOD VESSELS
LAYERS OF BLOOD VESSELS
 STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS
• The walls of arteries and veins are composed of three
tunics (layers).
• The layers surround a central opening called a lumen,
through which blood flows.
LAYERS
• Tunica intima
• The innermost layer
• It is composed of endothelial cells that form a slick lining
• It lies on a basement membrane.
 Structure con’t…
• It minimizes friction as blood moves through
the lumen.
• It is the only layer that is in direct contact with
blood,
• It prevents blood clotting
• It also produces nitric oxide which is a
vasodilator
 
 Structure con’t…
 
• Tunica media
• The middle layer
• It is Composed of smooth muscle cells and
sheets of elastic tissue
• The layer enables the lumen to narrow or
widen to regulate blood flow in the body
 Structure con’t…

• Tunica adventitia
• It forms a protective outer layer of the blood
vessel wall
• It is composed of fibrous tissue
• It also anchors the blood vessel to surrounding
structures..
LAYERS OF BLOOD VESSELS
 MAIN BLOOD VESSELS-
ARTERIES

• Strongest of the blood vessels

• They carry blood away from the heart
• They are under high pressure
• They constrict and dilate
• They vary in size
• Arteries have thicker walls than veins to
withstand the high pressure
• The muscular and elastin tissue depends on
the size
 TYPES OF ARTERIES –
ELASTIN
 
• The tunica media has more elastic tissue
and less smooth muscle.
• The proportions gradually change as the
arteries branch many times
• Examples include:
• Aorta, pulmonary artery, Carotids, vertebral
and subclavian arteries
 ELASTIN ARTERIES CON’T…

• They are also called conducting arteries

• They also function as arterial sensory structures
• Carotid sinus (baroreceptors)
• Aortic bodies (chemoreceptors)
• They have a pressure reservoir function
• They help propel blood onward while the
ventricles are relaxing
 ELASTIN ARTERIES CON’T…
• Their walls stretch, easily accommodating the
surge of blood as blood is ejected from the
heart into elastic arteries
• As they stretch, the elastic fibers momentarily
store mechanical energy,
• As the elastic fibers recoil they convert stored
(potential) energy in the vessel into kinetic
energy of the blood
 ELASTIN ARTERIES CON’T…
This causes blood to continue to move
through the arteries even while the ventricles
are relaxed
 
 MUSCULAR ARTERIES

• They are medium-sized arteries

• The tunica media contains more smooth
muscle and fewer elastic fibers than elastic
arteries
 MUSCULAR ARTERIS CON’T….
• They are capable of greater vasoconstriction
and vasodilation
• This adjust the rate of blood flow.
• They continue to branch and ultimately
distribute blood to each of the various organs, 
•  They are called distributing arteries.
 ARTERIOLES

• Small branches of arteries

• They have a thin tunica interna with a thin,
• fenestrated internal elastic lamina that
disappears at the terminal end
• The tunica media consists of one to two layers
of smooth muscle cells.
• The terminal end of the arteriole, is called
the Metarteriole
 ARTERIOLES CON’T…
• Pre-capillary sphincter is the most distal muscle
at metarteriole-capillary junction
• The sphincter monitors the blood flow into the
capillary;
• Smooth muscle cells in the arteriole regulate the
resistance to blood flow
• Sympathetic nerves supplied to smooth muscle
controls resistance and blood flow control
through the blood vessels.
 ARTERIOLES CON’T…
• Arterioles play a key role in regulating blood
flow from arteries into capillaries by regulating
resistance.
• They are known as resistance arteries.
 ANASTOMOSIS

• Union of the branches of two or more arteries supplying

the same body region or veins draining the same region
• They form a link between main arteries supplying an
area
• It provide alternative routes for blood to reach a tissue
or organ
• Arterial anastomosis ensure that blood gets to the
capillaries of an organ to deliver oxygen and nutrients
and to remove waste products.
 ANASTOMOSIS CON’T…

• The alternative route of blood flow to a body part

through an anastomosis is known as collateral
circulation
• Examples include.
palms of the hand and soles of the feet, the
brain, the joints and the heart muscle
• Venous anastomosis ensures blood returns to the
heart
 END ARTERIES
• Arteries with no anastomoses
• Examples (circle of Willis) in the brain or the
central artery to the retina of the eye.
• Occlusion to the end artery causes the tissue
to die because there is no alternative blood
supply.
 
 CAPILLARIES
• They are branches of arterioles
• They are smallest of the blood vessel
• The number is dependant upon metabolic
activities in the tissue.
• Tissues with higher metabolic activities have
more capillaries.
• Examples are muscles, the brain, the liver, the
kidneys, and the nervous system,
 CAPILLARIES CON’T…
• Tissues with less metabolic activities have
fewer capillaries like tendons and ligaments,
• Some areas don’t have capillaries like covering
and lining epithelia, the cornea and lens of the
eye, and cartilage.
• They connect arterioles to venules
• They are only about one cell layer thick
• Oxygen and nutrients can pass out of a
capillary into a body cell
 CAPILLARIES CON’T…

• Carbon dioxide and other waste products pass

out of a body cell into a capillary
• They Permit and regulate metabolic exchange
between blood and tissues
• They are therefore referred to as exchange
Vessels
 CAPILLARIES CON’T…
• Some areas don’t have capillaries like covering
and lining epithelia, the cornea and lens of the
eye, and cartilage.

 TYPES OF CAPILARIES
There are three types:
• Continuous capillaries
• Fenestrated capillaries
• Sinusoids capillaries
 Continuous capillaries

• Their membranes of endothelial cells form a

continuous tube
• The tube is only interrupted by gaps
between neighboring endothelial cells
• Examples are found in the brain, lungs,
skeletal and smooth muscle, and connective
tissues.
 fenestrated capillaries

• They have small holes or poles

• Examples are in Kidneys, intestine, choroid
plexus and endocrine glands.

  Sinusoids capillaries

• They have are wider holes and more winding

than other capillaries
Capillary Bed Interaction of
molecules flowing in and out of blood at a capillary bed
 Veins
• They return blood to the heart.
• They have three layers as arteries
• Their walls are thinner than those of arteries
• They have less muscle and elastic tissue in
the tunica media
• . Some veins possess valves,
• The valves ensures flow of blood towards
the heart
• Valves are abundant in the veins of the limbs,
 VEINS CON’T…

• They are more abundant in lower limbs where

force of gravity has to be overcome in standing
position .
• Valves are absent in very small and very large
veins in the thorax and abdomen.
• Valves are formed by a fold of tunica intima
• Their cusps are semilunar in shape
.
 Control of blood vessel diameter

• All blood vessels except capillaries have

smooth muscle fibres in the tunica media
which are supplied by nerves of the
autonomic nervous system.
• These nerves arise from the vasomotor centre
in the medulla oblongata and they change the
diameter of the lumen of blood vessels,
controlling the volume of blood they contain.
 Control of blood vessel diameter
• Medium-sized and small arteries have more
muscle than elastic tissue in their walls.
• In large arteries, such as the aorta, the middle
layer is almost entirely elastic tissue.
• This means that small arteries and arterioles
respond to nerve stimulation whereas the
diameter of large arteries varies according to the
amount of blood they contain.
• Capillaries are not supplied by the nerves
 BLOOD FLOW AND VELOCITY

• Velocity, or speed of blood differs in the various

parts of the vascular system.
• It is inversely related to the cross-sectional area
• A branching artery has a larger cross-sectional
area
• Blood flow is therefore fastest in the aorta and
slowest in the capillaries
VASODILATATION AND VASOCONSTRICTION

• Degree of sympathetic nerve stimulation

determines smooth muscle tone
VASODILATATION
• This decreased nerve stimulation leads to:
• Relaxation of smooth muscle
• Thinning of the vessel wall
• Enlargement of the lumen.
• It results in increased blood flow and less
resistance
 VASOCONSTRICTION
• Here there’s increased nerve stimulation
• Vasoconstriction contracts and thickens the
smooth muscles of the tunica media
• It results to decreased blood flow
• The blood vessels primarily responsible for
providing resistance to blood flow are the
small arterioles, the walls of which consist
mainly of smooth muscle.
• A small change in their lumen results in
considerable alteration in blood flow to the
part of the body they supply.
• Arterioles provide the peripheral resistance to
the flow of blood and are therefore called
resistance vessels. This is important in
maintaining homeostasis of blood pressure.
• Resistance to flow of fluids along a tube is
determined by three factors: the diameter of
the tube; the length of the tube; and the
viscosity of the fluid involved.
• The most important factor in relation to flow
of blood along vessels is peripheral resistance.
• The length of the vessels and viscosity of
blood could also contribute but in health
these are constant and are therefore not
significant determinants of changes in blood
flow.
 VENOUS RETURN

• This is blood returning to the heart

• It is the major determinant of cardiac
output(amount of blood pumped out of the
heart each minute)
• The heart pumps out all blood returned to it
• . The force of contraction of the left ventricle
is not sufficient to return the blood back to
the heart.
 VENOUS RETURN
Other factors are involved.
• The position of the body.
• Gravity assists the venous return from the
head and neck when standing or sitting.
• Lying flat offers less resistance to venous
return from the lower parts of the body
 OTHER FACTORS INVOLVED.
CON’T….
Muscular contraction.
• Veins, however, pass between skeletal muscle
groups that provide a massaging action as they
contract
• As the veins are squeezed by contracting skeletal
muscles, a one-way flow of blood to the heart is
ensured by the presence of venous valve
 MUSCULAR CONTRACTION CON’T...

• This is referred to as skeletal muscle pump

• Action of the skeletal muscle pumps aid the
return of venous blood from the lower limbs
to the large abdominal veins.
Lower Limb veins in between skeletal
muscles
 THE RESPIRATORY PUMP

• Movement of venous blood from abdominal

to thoracic veins, however, is aided by an
additional mechanism—breathing Contraction
of the dome-shaped diaphragm causes it to
flatten and descend inferiorly into the
abdomen
•  
 BLOOD PRESSURE

• It is the force the blood exerts against the walls of the

blood vessels
• The pumping of the left ventricle creates blood
pressure,
• It is measured in mmHg (millimeters of mercury).
• Two numbers are taken when pressure reading is taken
• Systolic pressure represents time of ventricular
contracting.
• It is the highest figure
 BLOOD PRESSURE CON’T…

• Systemic blood pressure is highest in the

aorta,
• The aorta receives all of the blood pumped by
the left ventricle.
• Blood pressure decreases as blood travels
farther away from the heart
 BLOOD PRESSURE CON’T…
• Diastolic pressure represents relaxation of
the ventricles
• It gives the lowest figure
• .The brachial artery is most often used to take
a blood pressure reading
• ;Its normal systolic range is 90 to 120 mmHg,
• Its normal diastolic range is 60 to 80 mmHg.
 BLOOD PRESSURE CON’T…
• Systemic blood pressure is highest in the aorta,
• It receives all of the blood pumped by the left
ventricle.
• ,Blood pressure decreases as blood travels
farther away from the heart
• .The brachial artery is most often used to take a
blood pressure reading
• ;Its normal systolic range is 90 to 120 mmHg,
• Its normal diastolic range is 60 to 80 mmHg.
 BLOOD PRESSURE CON’T…
• In the arterioles, blood pressure decreases
further, and systolic and diastolic pressures
merge into one pressure
• The pressure decreases further as blood flows
through the veins
• Blood pressure approaches zero in the caval
veins as blood enters the right atrium.
Pulmonary blood pressure is created by the
right ventricle,
 BLOOD PRESSURE CON’T…
• It has relatively thin walls and thus exerts
• Lower pressure as compared to left ventricle
• This leads to lower pulmonary pressure(20-
25/8-10mmHg which aids in prevention of
fluid accumulation in the alveoli of the Lungs
 
CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)
• It is controlled in two ways:
Short-term control,
• a moment-to-moment basis
• It mainly involves the Baroreceptor reflex,
Chemoreceptors and circulating hormones
Long-term control
• Involves regulation of blood volume by the
kidneys and the renin—angiotensin—
aldosterone system
 CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)
CON’T…
• The cardiovascular centre (CVC) is a collection
of interconnected neurones in the brain
• It is within the medulla and pons.
• It receives, integrates and coordinates inputs
from:
• baroreceptors (pressure receptors)
• chemoreceptors
• higher centres in the brain.
 CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)
CON’T…
• The Cardial Vascular Centre sends autonomic
nerves (both sympathetic and
parasympathetic) to the heart and blood
vessels.
• Blood Pressure is controlled by:
• slowing down or speeding up the heart by
dilating or constricting blood vessels
 BARORECEPTORS

• Nerve endings sensitive to pressure changes

• Situated in the arch of the aorta and in the
carotid sinuses
• This is moment-to-moment regulatory
mechanism for controlling blood pressure.
• Increase in pressure stimulates
parasympathetic nerves which in turn reduces
heart rate and dilate blood vessels
 BARORECEPTORS

• Reduced pressure stimulates sympathetic nerves

to the heart which increases heart rate and
constricts blood vessels blood pressure
CHEMORECEPTORS
• Nerve endings situated in the carotid and aortic
bodies.
• involved in control of respiration
 CHEMORECEPTORS
CON’T…

• Sensitive to changes in the levels of carbon

dioxide, oxygen and the acidity of the blood
• Influences its output only when
• Severe disruption of respiratory function
occurs or when
• Arterial Blood Pressure falls to less than 80
mmHg.
 HIGHER CENTRES IN THE BRAIN

• Influenced by
• Emotional states such as fear, anxiety, pain
and anger that may stimulate changes in
blood pressure
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM

• Slow, hormonal mechanism.

• Used in long-term blood pressure regulation
by adjustment of blood volume.
• Renin is an enzyme.
• Angiotensin I is inactive.
• Angiotensin II is physiologically active.
• Angiotensin II is degraded by angiotensinase
 STEPS IN RENIN ANGIOTENSIN-
ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM
• A decrease in renal perfusion pressure causes
the cells of the afferent arteriole in the
juxtaglomerular kidney cells to secrete Renin.
• Renin is an enzyme that catalyzes the
conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
in plasma.
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) catalyzes
the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II,
primarily in the lungs.
 CON’T…
• Angiotensin II has two effects:
(i) It stimulates synthesis and secretion of aldosterone by the
adrenal cortex.
• Aldosterone increases Na⁺ and water reabsorption by the
kidneys.
• This increases extracellular fluid blood volume, and arterial
pressure.
• This action of aldosterone is slow because it requires new
protein synthesis.
(ii) It causes vasoconstriction of the arterioles, thereby
increasing arterial pressure.
 THE END

THANK YOU
  
REFERENCE

• Ross and Wilsons (2004),Anatomy and Physiology,

nineth edition, Churchil, Livingstonia, London New
york
• Gerald J. T and Bryan D.(2009),Principles of
Anatomy and Physiology.12th edition, John Wiley and
Sons, United states of America.
• Gray S.(1998)Anatomy. The Anatomy and
Physiology ,Springhouse, Lippincott.