10 Ways to SEE the ELECTRIC FIELD

Chapter 24

Gauss’s Law

• Electric flux
• Gauss’s Law
• Application of Gauss’s Law to various charge
distributions
• Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
Recap: Dot Product of vectors

 
W  F  s  Fs cos 

• The physical meaning of dot product

is vector projection
• The result of dot project is scalar

Commutative law of multiplication

Distributive law of multiplication

2
Recap: Dot Product z
In a 3-dimensional coordinate system (x, y, z) k̂ y
iˆ , ĵ , k̂ iˆ
Unit vectors: iˆ  1 ˆj  1 kˆ  1 ĵ
x
Notice: iˆ  ˆj  0 ˆj  kˆ  0 iˆ  kˆ  0 ^ 𝑘=?
^
𝑘∙

If  A  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj  a3kˆ  
 then A  B  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
 B  b1iˆ  b2 ˆj  b3kˆ


 F  3iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ
Example: 
d  2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ

Determine the work done W.

3 Introduction
Vector of Surface

 S  Snˆ
S  Snˆ ( n̂ is the unit vector of
surface normal)
• Direction of a surface vector is defined to the
normal of its plane
• Magnitude of a surface vector is its area

S S
n̂

4 Introduction
Electric Flux
Electric flux is the product of the magnitude of the
electric field and the surface area, A, perpendicular
to the field: ΦE = EA, units: N · m2 / C
The electric flux is proportional to the number of
electric field lines penetrating some surface. The
field lines may make some angle θ with the normal
direction of the surface, then
 
 E  E  A  EA cos 
The flux is a maximum when the surface is
perpendicular to the field: θ = 0º.
The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the
field: θ = 90º.
If the field varies over the surface, Φ = EA cos θ is
valid for only a small element of the area.

5 Section 24.1
Electric Flux, General (only concepts are required)

In a more general case, look at a small area

element.
 
 E  Ei Ai cos i  Ei  A i
In general, this becomes
 E  lim  Ei Ai cos  i
Ai 0
 
  E  dA
surface
 The surface integral means the integral
must be evaluated over the surface in
question.
In general, the value of the flux will depend
both on the field pattern and on the surface.

6 Section 24.1
Electric Flux, Closed Surface
Assume a closed surface

The vectors A i point in different directions.
 At each point, they are perpendicular to
the surface.
 By convention, they point outward.

At (1), the field lines are crossing the surface

from the inside to the outside; θ < 90o,
cosθ and Φ is positive.
At (2), the field lines graze surface; θ = 90o,
cosθ = 0, Φ = 0.
At (3), the field lines are crossing the surface
from the outside to the inside;180o > θ > 90o,
cosθ and Φ is negative.

7 Section 24.1
Flux Through Closed Surface, final
The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the surface.
 This net number of lines is the number of lines leaving the surface minus the number
entering the surface.
If En is the component of the field perpendicular to the surface, then
 
 E   E  dA   En dA
 The integral is over a closed surface.

closed surface

Flux Through a Cube, Example

In this example, the electric field is uniform everywhere. The
cube has a size of L.
The field lines pass through two surfaces perpendicularly
and are parallel to the other four surfaces.
For face (1), ΦE =  EL2; For face (2), ΦE = EL2
For the other sides, ΦE = 0; Therefore, ΦE,total = 0
8 Section 24.1
A positive point charge, q, is located at the
center of a sphere of radius r.
The magnitude of the electric field
everywhere on the surface of the sphere is
E = keq/r2
The field lines are directed radially outward
and are perpendicular to the surface at every
point.
 
 E   E  dA E  dA
This will be the net flux through the Gaussian
surface, the sphere of radius r.
We know E = keq/r2 and Asphere = 4πr2, then 1
ke 
4 0
2  ke q  2 q n̂
 E  E ( 4r )   2 (4r )  4ke q 
 r  0

9 Section 24.2
 Electric fields

Gauss’s Law – General

Gauss’s Law:
Any closed surface surrounds charge q,
the electric flux is

  q
 E   E  dA 
0

Inferences:
─ The electric flux is independent of
the shape of surface
─ If no charge inside, E = 0

10 Section 24.2
   q
 E   E  dA 
0
Gauss’s Law, comments

Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship between the net electric
flux through a closed surface and the charge enclosed by the surface.
 The closed surface is often called a Gaussian surface.
Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of electric fields.
Gauss’s Law can be used as an alternative procedure for calculating electric
fields, particularly for the electric field of highly symmetric charge distributions.
Gauss’s Law is based on the inverse-square behavior of the electric force
between point charges.
Gauss’s Law is important in understanding and verifying the properties of
conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.

q1 q2
Fe  ke 2
r

11 Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – General, notes
The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge, q, is given by q/ɛ0 and
is independent of the shape of that surface.
The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge is zero.
Since the electric field due to many charges is the vector sum of the electric fields produced
by the individual charges, the flux through any closed surface can be expressed as
         q  q  
 E   E  dA   (E1  E 2    )  dA   E1  dA   E 2  dA     1 2
0
Gaussian Surface, Example
• Closed surfaces of various shapes can surround
the charge. Only S1 is spherical - verifies the net
flux through any closed surface surrounding a
point charge q is given by q/ɛ0 and is independent
of the shape of the surface.
• The charge is outside the closed surface with an
arbitrary shape. Any field line entering the surface
leaves at another point. - verifies the electric flux
through a closed surface that surrounds no charge
is zero. Section 24.2
12
Electric flux through a Gaussian surface –
Example of multiple point charges

❑ :
Flux through surface

⃗ ⃗ 𝑞
𝛷 𝐸 =∮ 𝐄⋅ 𝑑 𝐀=
1

𝑆 𝜀0
❑ :
Flux through surface
⃗ ⃗ 𝑞 +𝑞
𝛷 𝐸 =∮ 𝐄⋅ 𝑑 𝐀=
2 3

𝑆′ 𝜀0 <0

❑ :
Flux through surface
⃗ 𝑑⃗
𝛷 𝐸 =∮ 𝐄⋅ 𝐀=0 <0

𝑆 ′′
Note: , , and are all closed surfaces
Gauss’s Law – Mathematics 𝑞
Φ E =∮ ⃗
𝐄⋅𝑑 ⃗
𝐀= ¿

The mathematical form of Gauss’s law states 𝜀𝑜

 qin is the net charge inside the surface.

E represents the electric field at any point on the surface.

 E is the total electric field and may have contributions from charges both
inside and outside of the surface.

Although Gauss’s law can, in theory, be solved to find E for any charge
configuration, in practice it is limited to symmetric situations: spherical,
cylindrical, or planar symmetry

Applying Gauss’s Law

To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a Gaussian surface over which the surface integral
can be simplified and the electric field can be determined.
Take advantage of symmetry.
Remember, the Gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it does not have to coincide
with a real surface.
14 Section 24.2
Conditions for a Gaussian Surface
Gauss’s law can be useful when we choose a Gaussian surface such that part of
the surface satisfies one of these conditions:
 1) The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be constant
over the surface.
𝑞
 2) and are parallel. Φ E = =∮ 𝐄
¿ ⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗𝐀 =𝐸 𝐴
𝜀𝑜
 3) and are perpendicular (i.e., =0).
𝑞
 4) The field is zero. 𝐸= ¿

𝐴 𝜀𝑜
If the charge distribution does not have sufficient symmetry such that a Gaussian
surface that satisfies these conditions cannot be found, Gauss’s Law is not useful
for determining the electric field for that charge distribution.

 q i dq
E  ke lim
qi 0
i r 2 i e  r 2 rˆ
ˆ
r  k
i

15 Section 24.3
Exp. 1: Field Due to a Spherically Symmetric Uniform Charge Distribution

An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a

Select a sphere as the Gaussian uniform volume charge density ρ and carries a
surface. total positive charge Q. Calculate the magnitude
of electric field at a point inside and outside the
For r > a: Choose surface in Fig (a) sphere.

𝑞
𝛷 𝐸=∮ 𝐄
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗
𝐀= 𝑖𝑛

𝜀𝑜

∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴= 𝜀𝑄
𝑜
𝑄
𝐸∮ 𝑑𝐴=
𝜀𝑜
𝑄
𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 2)=
𝜀𝑜
𝑄 𝑄
 𝐸= =𝑘
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟
2 𝑒 2
𝑟 (a) Gaussian surface (b)

16 Section 24.3
Exp. 1: Field Due to a Spherically Symmetric Uniform Charge Distribution

An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a

Select a sphere as the Gaussian uniform volume charge density ρ and carries a
surface. total positive charge Q. Calculate the magnitude
of electric field at a point inside and outside the
For r < a: Choose surface in Fig (b) sphere.

⃗ ⃗ 𝑞¿
𝛷 𝐸=∮ 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐀 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞¿
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴=
𝜀𝑜
𝑞¿ 𝑄
 𝐸= 2
=𝑘𝑒 3 𝑟
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑎 Gaussian surface (b)
(a)
17 Section 24.3
Spherically Symmetric Distribution, summary
Q
For r < a: E  ke 3
r
a

Inside the sphere, E varies linearly with r

 E → 0 as r → 0

Q Q
For r  a: E  k e 2
4 0 r 2 r

The field outside the sphere is equivalent

to that of a point charge located at the
center of the sphere.

18 Section 24.3
Exp. 2: Field at a Distance from a Line of Charge
Select a cylindrical charge distribution .
 The cylinder has a radius of r and a length of ℓ.

E is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the
surface at every point on the curved part of the surface.
Use Gauss’s Law to find the field.
  q
 E   E  dA E  dA  in
0
l l 
E ( 2rl )  E  2k e
0 2rl 0 r
The end view confirms the field is perpendicular to the
curved surface.
The field through the ends of the cylinder is 0 since the
field is parallel to these surfaces.

19 Section 24.3
Exp. 3: Field Due to a Plane of Charge

E must be perpendicular to the plane and must
have the same magnitude at all points
equidistant from the plane.
Choose a small cylinder whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane for the Gaussian
surface.

E is parallel to the curved surface and there is
no contribution to the surface area from this
curved part of the cylinder.
The flux through each end of the cylinder is EA
and so the total flux is 2EA.
The total charge in the surface is σA.
Applying Gauss’s law: qin A 
 E  2 EA   and E 
Note, this does not depend on r.
0 0 2 0

Therefore, the field is uniform everywhere.

20
https://polyu.ureply.mobi Login with your ID
session:L7684

(a) 0
E=? (b) σ/(2ε0)

(c) σ/ε0

(d) 2σ/ε0


E
2 0
10 Ways to SEE the ELECTRIC FIELD II
Exp. 4: Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic Equilibrium
When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor is said
to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
(P1) The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
 Whether the conductor is solid or hollow
(P2) If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge resides on its
surface.
(P3) The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular
to the surface and has a magnitude of s / ɛ0.
 s is the surface charge density at that point.

(P4) On an irregularly shaped conductor, the

surface charge density is greatest at
locations where the radius of curvature is
the smallest.

22 Section 24.4
Property 1: Fieldinside = 0

Consider a conducting slab in an external field.

If the field inside the conductor were not zero,
free electrons in the conductor would experience
an electrical force.
These electrons would accelerate and would not
be in equilibrium. Therefore, there cannot be a
field inside the conductor.
Before the external field is applied, free electrons
are distributed throughout the conductor.
When the external field is applied, the electrons
redistribute until the magnitude of the internal field equals the magnitude of the
external field, resulting in a net field of zero inside the conductor.

This redistribution takes about 10-16 s and can be considered instantaneous.

If the conductor is hollow, the electric field inside the conductor is also zero.

23 Section 24.4
Property 2: Charge Resides on the Surface

Choose a Gaussian surface inside but close to the

actual surface.
The electric field inside is zero (property 1).
There is no net flux through the Gaussian surface.
Because the Gaussian surface can be as close to
the actual surface as desired, there can be no
charge inside the surface.
Since no net charge can be inside the surface, any
net charge must reside on the surface.
Gauss’s law does NOT indicate the distribution of
these charges, only that it must be on the surface
of the conductor.

24 Section 24.4
Property 3: Field’s Magnitude and Direction

Choose a cylinder as the Gaussian surface.

The field must be perpendicular to the surface.

 If there were a parallel component to E ,
charges would experience a force and
accelerate along the surface and it would not
be in equilibrium.
The net flux through the Gaussian surface is
through only the flat face outside the conductor.
 The field here is perpendicular to the surface.
Applying Gauss’s law:

qin A  n̂
 E   EdA EA   and E 
0 0 0

25 Section 24.4
 qin A  qin A 
 E  2 EA   and E   E   EdA EA   and E 
0 0 2 0 0 0 0
Conceptualize
 Similar to the insulating sphere example
 Now a charged insulating sphere is surrounded
by a conducting shell
 Note different charges on the sphere and shell
Categorize
 System has spherical symmetry
 Gauss’s Law can be applied

Analyze
 Construct a Gaussian sphere between the surface of the solid sphere and
the inner surface of the shell: Region 2, a < r < b; Charge inside is +Q
 The electric field lines must be directed radially outward and be constant in
magnitude on the Gaussian surface.

27 Section 24.4
Exp. 5: Sphere and Shell Example, summary

(3) E3  0 (for b  r  c)

In region 3 the electric field must

be zero because the spherical
shell is a conductor in equilibrium.
(Property 1 on Slide 23)

𝑞
Φ E =∮ ⃗
𝐄⋅𝑑 ⃗
𝐀= ¿

𝜀𝑜
From Gauss’s law, = 0
So -Q on the inner surface of the shell to
cancel the Q on the insulating sphere.

And the other -Q on the outer surface of

the shell.
Exp. 5: Sphere and Shell Example, summary

Q
(4) E4   k e (for r  c)
r2

𝑞
𝛷 𝐸=∮ 𝐄
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗
𝐀= 𝑖𝑛

𝜀𝑜
−2 𝑄+𝑄
∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴=
𝜀𝑜
−𝑄
𝐸∮ 𝑑𝐴=
𝜀𝑜
−𝑄
𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 2 )=
𝜀𝑜
−𝑄 𝑄
 𝐸= 2
=−𝑘 𝑒 2
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟

The field outside the shell is equivalent to that of

a point charge located at the center of the
sphere.
Exp. 5: What if there is nothing inside the -2Q charged shell ?

𝑞
Φ E =∮ ⃗
𝐄⋅𝑑 ⃗
𝐀= ¿

𝜀𝑜
-2Q

No charge
at the inner
surface

2𝑄 𝑄
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑘𝑒 2 𝐸 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟 𝑟
The field outside the shell is equivalent to that of
a point charge located at the center of the
sphere.
Exp. 5: What if there is nothing inside the -2Q charged shell ?

-2Q -2Q

𝐸=?
0 0

2𝑄
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟

Uniformly distributed charge on a spherical surface

gives zero electric field inside the sphere.
 Exp. 5: Sphere and Shell Example, summary

Q
(1) E1  ke 3
r (for r  a)
a
Q
( 2) E2  k e 2 (for a  r  b)
r
-2Q Slide 18

E=0

The charge on the conducting

shell creates zero electric field Will further discuss this in Chap 25.
inside itself and inside the cavity.
Exp. 5: Sphere and Shell Example, summary

 The electric field for each area can be calculated.

Q
(1) E1  ke 3
r (for r  a)
a
Q
( 2) E2  k e 2 (for a  r  b)
r
(3) E3  0 (for b  r  c)
Q
( 4) E4   k e (for r  c)
r2
Finalize
 Check the charge distribution: -Q on the inner surface
and the other -Q on the outer surface.
 Think about other possible combinations.
 What if the sphere were conducting instead of
insulating?
33 Section 24.4
Exp. 5: What if the sphere were conducting instead of insulating ?

 The electric field for each area can be calculated.

(1) E1  0 (for r  a)
Q
(2) E2  k e (for a  r  b)
r2
(3) E3  0 (for b  r  c)
Q
(4) E4   k e (for r  c)
r2
Charge distribution:
 Q on the surface of the red conducting sphere.
 -Q on the inner surface of the spherical shell and the
other -Q on the outer surface.
 From E outside (region 2-4), you cannot tell whether
the sphere is conducting or insulating.
34 Section 24.4
Exp. 5: What if there is nothing inside the -2Q charged shell ? (backup)

𝑞  q i dq
𝐸 =−𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟
E  k e lim
qi 0

i ri
2
ri  ke  2 rˆ
ˆ
r
-2Q

Less charge q, but More charge q, but

shorter distance r longer distance r

Uniformly distributed charge on a spherical surface

gives zero electric field inside the sphere.