FACULTY OF ENERGY AND OIL & GAS INDUSTRY

Well logging

Lecture 3
Classification of Log Measurements
• In this class we are confining our interest to logs that are
used for the evaluation of the rock and its fluid content.
This will include both open-hole and cased-hole
measurements.
• Table 2-1 shows these measurements grouped into two
broad categories; those arising from natural (or
spontaneous) phenomena, and those arising from induced
phenomena. The first group simply employs a suitable
detector to obtain the measurement; the second group
requires an appropriate type of emitter to “excite” a
particular response in the formation, in addition to a
detection system.
2
3
 Natural phenomena
• (a) Natural gamma radioactivity, which can be measured: (1) as a total gamma-ray
count-rate, as in the classical gamma-ray log; and (2) as count-rates corresponding
to selected energy bands, as in the natural gamma-ray spectrometry log (NGS * or
Spectralog).
• (b) Spontaneous potential: the S.P. log.
• (c) Formation temperature: the temperature log.
• We should also include in this category:
• (d) Hole-diameter: the caliper log, which in fact is a measurement strongly related to
the mechanical or chemical properties of the rock.
• (e) Inclination of the hole: the deviation log, which measures both the angle of the
hole from the vertical, and its direction (or azimuth).

4
Physical properties measured by inducing responses from the formation

• Electrical measurements, by the emission of an electrical signal:

• 1) Resistivity or conductivity:
• (a) using an electrode system: electrical survey (ES), laterolog (LL) *, microlog (ML) *,
microlaterolog (MLL) *, spherically focused log (SFL) *, micro- spherically focused log (MSFL) *,
high-resolution dipmeter (HDT) *, (SDT) *.
• (b) using inductive coils: induction log (IL).
• 2) Dielectric constant, using inductive coils:
• electromagnetic propagation tool (EPT) *.

5
 Physical properties measured by inducing responses
from the formation
• Nuclear measurements, by the irradiation of formation with gamma rays or neutrons:
• 1) Density. Gamma rays are emitted from a source. The Compton scattered gamma rays returning from the
formation are detected: formation density or gamma- gamma log. (FDC *, D, CD, LDT *).
• 2) Photo-electric absorption coefficient (related to the mean Atomic Number). This is a low energy gamma-ray
phenomenon and is measured in addition to density in the lithodensity log (LDT) *.
• 3) The hydrogen indexes. The formation is continuously bombarded by high energy neutrons, which are slowed by
successive elastic collisions with atomic nuclei, particularly those of hydrogen.
• There are several techniques in use, involving the detection of:
• (a) Thermal neutrons, i.e., those neutrons that have been slowed down to thermal energy: neutron-thermal neutron
logging (CNL *, NT).
• (b) Gamma rays emitted when these thermal neutrons are captured by atomic nuclei: neutron-gamma logging (N).
• (c) Epithermal neutrons i.e., those neutrons not yet slowed down to thermal energy: neutron-epithermal neutron
logging NE, SNP *, CNL * (epithermal).

6
 Physical properties measured by inducing responses from the formation

• 4) Macroscopic thermal neutron capture cross-section (∑). High-energy neutrons are emitted in short bursts.
The rate of decay of the thermal neutron population in the formation is measured between bursts. This is a
neutron capture phenomenon: thermal neutron decay time (TDT) * or neutron lifetime logging (NLL).
• (5) Elemental composition. Gamma rays emitted from interactions between high energy neutrons and certain
atomic nuclei are analyzed spectroscopically. There are three types of interaction important for induced
gamma ray spectroscopy:
• (a) Fast neutron or inelastic interactions: inelastic gamma ray spectrometry (IGT, GST), carbon-oxygen
logging.
• (b) Neutron capture: capture gamma ray spectrometry (GST, IGT), chlorine logging.
• (c) Activation and subsequent decay of radio-isotopes: activation logging, high resolution spectrometry (HRS).
• (6) Proton spin relaxation time. A pulsed DC magnetic field momentarily aligns the nuclear magnetic
moments of the protons. After the pulse, the time required for the protons of the formation to stop precessing
about the Earth’s magnetic field is measured. This spin relaxation time can be used to evaluate residual oil.

7
 Physical properties measured by inducing responses from the
formation

• (C) Acoustic measurements-an acoustic signal is sent into the formation. We may measure:
• (1) The velocity of a compressional wave, from the transit time between two receivers: sonic log (SV,
SL, BHC*). The shear-wave velocity can also be measured.
• (2) The transit time from a surface gun to a downhole geophone: well seismic (WST) *.
• (3) The amplitude of a selected peak or trough in the acoustic wave-train arriving at a receiver. The
compressional or shear-wave arrivals may be of interest: amplitude logging (A).
• (4) The relative amplitudes of the various components of the wave-train, the configuration of the
wave-train; variable density logging (VDL) *, sonic waveform photography, well seismic (WST),
borehole televiewer (BHTV).

8
Other operations
• For the completeness of the operations which can be made in a well, one must mention:
• - the rock sampling, either by bullet or sidewall coring;
• - the fluid sampling and pressure measurement;
• - the flow-meter;
• - the cement-bond log for the evaluation of the quality of the cementation;
• - the casing inspection to detect corrosion.
• Most of the parameters mentioned previously can be acquired either during the drilling (LWD) or after the
drilling of a certain depth interval (WL).
• Whatever the technique used, the recording of physical parameters requests several equipment which are:
• - a surface mobile laboratory, put into a logging truck or an offshore cabin, equipped with panels and
computers for data processing, permanent storage of the data and their interpretation, printing of the
logging data ...
• - sondes.

9
 Wireline logging equipment
• As previously indicated, wireline logging measurements
are made using a measuring sonde (with electronic
cartridge), which is generally a cylindrical device, linked
to the cable by a quick connection. The cable is winded
around the drum of a winch. The cable and winch allow
the lowering and the raising of the sonde into the
borehole (Fig. 2-1).
• The truck and offshore unit are laboratories containing the
recording equipment, control panels, and computers.

10
 Logging truck and offshore units
• Figure 2-2 shows the equipment contained in a conventional logging truck of the 1970s:
• - The main winch (E), which may hold as much as 30,000 ft (9000 m) of multi-conductor, steel-armoured cable,
with a pulling capacity of several tons.
• - auxiliary winch (G) containing thinner monoconductor cable, generally for use when there was wellhead
pressure (production or work-over operations, mainly).
• -the winchman’s control panel (C).
• - the surface logging panels (A) which powered and controlled the downhole tool, processed the incoming
information and transmitted the information to:
• - the recording equipment: (a) camera (B and Fig. 2-3) and (b) magnetic tape recorder (J and Fig. 2-4).
• - depth-measuring system (F).
• - electrical generator (H).
• - dark-room for development of the film (D).
• - a printer (not shown).

11
Logging truck and offshore units

12
Logging truck and offshore units

13
 Logging truck and offshore units
• More recently, in 1989, even more sophisticated and modern
equipment have been introduced by service companies. For
Schlumberger, this is the MAXIS 500 (Multitask Acquisition &
Imaging System, Fig. 2-6) and MAXIS Express. For Baker Atlas,
this is the ECLIPS equipment (Fig. 2-7).

14
 Cable
• The logging cable fulfills three functions:
• (a) running-in and pulling out the tool, and control of tool recording
speed;
• (b) electrical interface between the downhole logging tool and the
surface processing and recording equipment;
• (c) depth measurement.

15
 Tool transport
• The cable (Fig. 2-8) has an external, load-
carrying armor consisting of two layers of
helical steel winding, wound in opposite
senses. A multicable is typically 15/32“ (1
1.8 mm) in diameter, and a monocable 7/32"
(5.5 mm).

16
 Tool transport
• The cable has the following physical characteristics (quantities refer to multi-
conductor cable):
• (a) It can support as much as 8 tons of tension at surface. However, non-elastic
deformation (and rupture of the conductors) will occur at considerably lower
tensions. In practice, tensions higher than 3-4 tons (for a logging tool weight of 1500
lb) are rarely encountered.
• (b) It is able to pass round relatively small pulleys or sheave-wheels, typically 4 ft in
diameter, mounted in the rig-structure.
• (c) The insulation of the conductor wires must not be able to extrude between armor
windings, even at several thousand psi of pressure (several tens of megapascals).
• (d) It must resist abrasion by rocks, and corrosion (saline muds, gas, etc.).
• The life of a cable generally runs to two or three hundred descents in moderate
operating conditions.
17
 Conductor of electrical signals
• Monocable: control signals and power from surface panels must share the single
conductor wire with perhaps several channels of measured data from downhole,
requiring special transmission modes.
• Multiconductor cable (Hepta-cable): the seven copper conductors are each insulated
by polypropylene, teflon, rubber, etc., jackets. The insulation, better than 10 MP at
surface, must remain effective at high temperatures.
• Power, commands and data are transmitted on combinations of conductors in such a
way as to minimize signal attenuation and "crosstalk" among channels.
• Signal distortion is kept to a minimum despite the considerable distance of
transmission (as much as 30,000 ft or 9000 m) and high temperatures involved (175-
200°C). Signal frequencies up to 200 kHz are used.

18
 Depth measurement
• Film and tape movements were governed by cable
motion, which was transmitted by a calibrated
spooler wheel (F in Fig. 2-2) to mechanical or
electrical drive systems, which permitted a choice
of tape speeds or depth scales on film.
• In modern computerized surface logging units, the
measurement sequence is still controlled by depth.
The cable is marked magnetically every 100 ft or 25
m under constant tension. These marks are detected
as the cable passes the spooler device located near
the drum (Fig. 2-9), and serve as the reference for
precise depth control, permitting corrections to be
made for spooler wheel inaccuracy.

19
 The bridle
• Certain electrodes devices require the use of a
"bridle", which is a length of deca-cable, insulated
on the outside, with two lead electrodes which serve
as remote returns (Fig. 2-1 la). The bridle is
connected to the cable by a quick-connection
consisting of two rope-sockets clamped in a split-
shell, the "torpedo". Figure 2-1 1 b shows the bridle
head, which connects electrically and mechanically
to the logging tool. Most logging tools dispense
with the bridle. In this case, a head is connected
directly to the cable, using a torpedo quick-
connection.
• The logging head contains the important weak
point, which permits the cable to be pulled off a
stuck tool prior to a fishing job.

20
 The "fish"
• This is a remote electrode made out of lead, connected to the logging
panel by a long-insulated wire, via a truck installation. It is usually
buried in damp earth, the mud-pit, or lowered into the sea, sufficiently
far from electrical sources to be at zero potential. It is needed as the
reference electrode-at-infinity for the spontaneous potential (SP), and for
the current return of the deep laterolog. The fish is not strictly a common
ground return and is insulated from the truck chassis and cable armor.

21
 The logging tools
Logging tools vary in complexity from a simple electrode-carrying
mandrel, to a sophisticated system of electronic circuits, enclosed in a
pressure-resistant metal housing and capable of operating at high
temperatures. The tool generally includes sonde and cartridge.

22
 The sonde
• All sondes consist at least of a detector, receiver or
sensor. For measurements of induced phenomena there
will also be a source or emitter. These components are
mounted in the logging sonde, which may also contain a
hydraulic or mechanical system (for opening and closing
the arms of a pad-type tool, for instance), and some
electronics (preamplifier, power-transformer Fig. 2-12a).

23
 The cartridge
• The sonde is generally attached below an electronic cartridge, which carries in a protective housing
the electronic modules or hardware for the downhole instrument, and which has a multiple role:
• (a) Power supply to the sonde emitter system (if necessary), and control of the timing and
characteristics of the emitted signal.
• (b) Power supply to the detector or receiver system if necessary.
• (c) Filtering and amplification of the incoming signal, analog-to-digital conversion, scaling and so
on.
• (d) Transmission of the signal up the cable, control of telemetry system, etc.
• (e) Power supply and control of any sonde mechanical operations (e.g., opening or retraction of the
dipmeter or image-tool arms).

24
 The telemetry system
• Before the introduction of the computerized system, the information was transmitted under an analog
form. One must realize that the transmitted signals through the cable underwent distortions. Now, the
digital transmission is the rule for modern logging companies. The information arrives as a function
of time at a well-defined frequency (Fig. 2-14) which can be either 15 or 60 Hz. The information is
stored in a buffer. It is averaged, then released as a function of the depth, thanks to a signal provided
by the system of depth measurement described previously (cf. Figure 2-10).
• The telemetry systems must assume a double traffic: the one corresponding to the commands sent
from the surface down to the sonde, and the one corresponding to the transmission toward the surface
of the data recorded by the sonde during its raising. The maximum capacity depends on the
equilibrium between these two traffics. The modern systems can transmit up to 500 kbits/second.

25
 Recording equipment
Photographic recorder (cf. Fig. 2-3)
• This was usually a nine-galvanometer system, recording on two films. Each galvanometer mirror
deflected a light-beam, assigned to a log measurement, onto both films. The deflection of the beam
varied with the magnitude of the logging signal. Up to nine measurements could be recorded.
Magnetic tape recorder (cf. Fig. 2-4)
• Magnetic tapes permitted many more channels of information to be recorded, and offered several
other advantages:
• (1) Both raw and functioned log data (such as raw count-rates, and computed porosity from the CNL)
were recorded, in addition to various tool operational data such as temperature and current level.
• (2) Playback capabilities permitted changes in optical log presentation to be made, recalibration,
functioning of raw data, and so on. This could be performed at the wellsite with the computerized
logging unit, or at the log computing center.

26
 Recording equipment
• (3) Computerized interpretation programs could be run on the logs, permitting rapid and continuous
evaluation of data. The computerized logging unit permitted well-site interpretations to be made
immediately after or during the recording.
• (4) Data could be transmitted by telephone or radio from the well-site to a distant office or computing
center
Electronic camera
• An electronic camera sends a beam on a sensitive film of which the progress is commanded by the
computer as a function of the data coming from the depth recorder.
• Data are now stored on tapes or disks.

27
 Logging While Drilling Equipment
• In early 1970s were introduced the first measurements while drilling (MWD). They were essentially
devoted to the guiding of the well and the measurement of its deviation.
• The well trajectory is continuously determined thanks to a system at inertia which includes:
• - a gyroscope with two axes, in which the rotor axis is maintained at the horizontal and aligned
toward the north,
• - a two-axes accelerometer.
• The measurement while drilling includes also the downhole weight on bit (DWOB), the downhole
torque (DTOR), and the rate of penetration (ROP).

28
 The sondes
• The sondes are inserted inside the drill-collars
just above the rock bit (Fig. 2-16).
• Measurements presently realized during the
drilling are listed hereafter.
• - A resistivity measurement, either by short
normal, or by induction method (using a 2 MHz
electromagnetic wave), compensated and with
two or more depth of investigation.
• - A resistivity at the bit can also be recorded.
• - A measurement similar to a laterolog.
• - A borehole wall resistivity image
• - A measurement of the total natural
radioactivity or its spectrometry.

29
 The sondes
• - A compensated density and photoelectric measurement.
• - A density and photoelectric imagery of the borehole wall.
• - A compensated neutron measurement.
• - A sonic measurement, both compressional and shear wave slowness.
• - A nuclear magnetic resonance measurement.
• - A measurement of the borehole diameter.
• The neutron sonde is situated at the top of the tool string in order to be able to recuperate the neutron
source if the tool string is stuck in the wellbore.
• The sondes are designed and built to support temperature, vibrations, and axial, torsional and
transversal shocks. As a function of the shocks, they can function between 250 and 400 hours without
breakdown.

30
 Sampling rate
• In logging while drilling measurements, movement of the sensors
is controlled by the drilling operation, and, more precisely, by the
rate of penetration (ROP) of the rock bit. As the ROP varies with
rock type, bit wear and bit design, the measures are transmitted at
regular time interval, which must be selected as a function of the
expected ROP. Consequently, the sampling rate is fixed at the
surface before each run. In order to optimize the sampling rate,
geologist on the well site and drilling personnel must together
estimate in advance the expected ROP knowing the approximate
depth and thickness of formations of interest. With these inputs,
the logging engineer can program the tool sample rates for
specific drilling interval, so the rate will automatically change
downhole at the appropriate depths (Fig. 2-22)

31
 Advantages of MWD/LWD measurements
• MWD measurements allow several data acquisitions which permit to pilot the well with greater
efficiency and security.
• - Direction and Inclination (D&I). The sensor consists of a set of triaxial inclinometers and triaxial
magnetometers to measure the hole direction (azimuth) and inclination (drift). MWD/LWD collars
are made from nonmagnetic material to avoid interference with the magnetometers. Measurements
are made as needed by the directional driller by starting the mud pumps
• - Tool Face (TF). It is a measurement of the orientation of the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) versus
the top of the hole (gravity tool face) or magnetic north (magnetic tool face). This information is
used by the directional driller to steer the well in the planned direction.
• - Shocks. Dedicated accelerometers measure the number of transverse shocks imparted to the MWD
collars above a certain threshold of g’s (acceleration). The driller uses this information to avoid drill
string mechanical failures.

32
 Advantages of MWD/LWD measurements
• - Weight and torque on bit. Strain gauges (paired to compensate for temperature drifts) measure the
effective downhole weight and torque. The data are continuously transmitted to the surface.
• - Downhole flow. A one-stage turbine, coupled with an alternator, powers the MWD/LWD system.
The voltage output of this alternator is proportional to the mud flow at the turbine level and,
therefore, is also a direct flow measurement. This measurement allows the detection of string
washouts. Should the downhole flow be different from that measured at surface, an alarm alerts the
driller to a possible leak in drill string.
• - Temperature. A thermistor in the wall of the MWD collar measures temperature variations in the
mud annulus.

33
 Borehole influences on measurements
• Although we would like logs to be direct measurements of the formation, log responses are
invariably affected by the presence of the well-bore, certain near-hole phenomena associated with the
drilling of the well, and the geometry of the logging tool itself. Operational problems may be posed
by temperature and pressure in the well.

34
 Borehole effects, invasion
• Drilling mud
• The influence of the drilling mud on a log response depends on several factors:
• 1) Hole diameter
• The larger the hole, the greater the volume of fluid around the logging tool, and the stronger its effect
on the log reading. Above a certain hole-size, there may be very little or no signal from the
formation. Well logging companies always specify a recommended maximum hole-size, in addition
to the minimum size for safe passage of the tool.
• 2) Mud-cake
• The solid particles in the mud are usually larger than the pores, and only the liquid content can invade
the formation (Fig.2-27) . So, during drilling, there is a build-up of mud-cake on the wall of the hole
wherever the mud-filtrate infiltrates. Eventually the mud-cake forms an almost impermeable
membrane (10-2 to 10-4 md) which impedes further invasion. Solid particles accumulate on the
borehole wall to form the mud-cake (Fig. 2-28).

35
Borehole effects, invasion

36
 Borehole effects, invasion
• Invasion
• Ignoring for the moment wells drilled with air or emulsion, the functions of the drilling mud are:
• (a) cooling of the drill-bit.
• (b) preventing the hole from collapsing inwards.
• (c) preventing flow of formation fluids (an extreme case of which is the “blow-out”)
• (d) bringing the cuttings up to surface.
• In principle, the mud is kept at a slightly higher pressure than the formation pore-fluids, by careful
control of the mud-density. Because of this pressure difference, there is a tendency for the mud to
infiltrate porous, permeable beds. This is known as invasion. (Figs. 2-25, 2-26).

37
Borehole effects, invasion

38
 Borehole effects, invasion
• The mud-filtrate displaces some of the formation fluid. The depth of invasion depends on the
porosity and permeability of the rock, the “water-loss’’ factor of the mud (the quantity of water which
is liberated from the mud), and the pressure difference between well-bore and formation.
• Figure 2-29 is a schematic representation of the invasion profile with the fluid and resistivity
repartition. The reservoir rock near the hole does not contain the same fluids as before invasion. The
formation volume in which the mud filtrate has replaced the original fluid(s) in place is called the
flushed zone or invaded zone. As fluid changes have occurred, both in the nature of the fluids and
their proportions, since the logging tools will always read at least some of the invaded zone signal,
these changes must be taken into account when attempting to evaluate the fluid saturation of the
virgin zone, which represents the reservoir at large.

39
Borehole effects, invasion

40
 Generalities on Electrical Measurements
• Without reviewing all the electricity and electromagnetism notions, it seems useful to review the
fundamental laws on which are based the electrical measurements realized in a well.
Ohm's law
• This well-known law indicates that a current of intensity I, in ampere, flowing through a homogeneous
medium of resistance R in ohm, is associated with a voltage drop V, in volt. This relation is written:

• Moreover, the resistance, R, of a material depends on two factors (Fig. 3-1):

• - its geometric form fonction of its length, l, in meter and its surface, S, in square meter, m 2;
• - its resistivity, p, which is a general inherent property of materials. Its unit is the ohm-m 2/m or ohm-m
or Ω-m.

41
 Generalities on Electrical Measurements
• So, one can write:

• The electrical resistivity of a material is its ability

to impede the flow of electrical current through it.
• Table 3-1 gives the resistivity values of some
elements

42
 Maxwell’s equations
• Four equations of Maxwell allow the unification of electricity
and magnetism relying on the notions of electric field, E, and
magnetic field, B (Fig. 3-2).
• A more general form of the Ohm’s equation, relies the current
density J in ampere/m2, a vector quantity, to the electric field E
in volt/m, and the conductivity of the material, σ

• The conductivity σ, is the inverse of resistivity ρ

• If the electrolyte contains only one species of cation (i.e., Na +)

and one species of anion (i.e., Cl-), the conductivity is given by
the following relation:

43
 Maxwell’s equations
• where:
• C is the concentration in gram-equivalent
• NAv is the Avogadro’s number
• e - the electron charge
• µc and µa are the mobilities of cation and anion.
• One often uses the concept of equivalent conductivity, λ, which is equal to σ/C.
• α is a parameter that depends on the dilution. If the dilution is infinite α = 1 and, in that case, the
equivalent conductivity is equal to:

• Low electrolytes follow the Ostwald’s law of dilution and one can write:

• where K is the constant of ionic equilibrium

44
 Maxwell’s equations
• The first set of Maxwell’s equation reflects the properties of the electromagnetic field. The first
relation:

• expresses the preservation of the magnetic flux and the absence of isolated magnetic charge.
• The second relation:

• accounts for the magnetic induction phenomena. It corresponds to the Maxwell-Faraday equation.
• The second set of equations links the electromagnetic field (E, B) to the sources of the volumic
density of charges ρo and to the current density J. The following equation, called Maxwell-Gauss

45
 Maxwell’s equations
• renders the Gauss’s theorem that links the field E to its sources, while the following equation:

• expresses the Ampere’s theorem. This is the Maxwell-Ampere equation.

• E is the electric field, in volt/m, which is defined as the force per unit charge. In electrostatic this
field is equal to:

• This equation allows the computation of the electric field strength at any given point situated at a
distance r from the charge of magnitude q.

46
 Maxwell’s equations
• B is the induction magnetic field of which the unit is the tesla. In the case of a current element, it is
given by the following relation:

• This relation expresses the Biot-Savart's law. Combining eqs. (3-3) and (3-12) we have:

• Moreover, for a charge q at a distance r , we have:

• The volumic current density is also equal to:

47
 Maxwell’s equations
• Integrating the current density on the sphere surface of radius r we have:

• Extracting q from this last equation, we have:

• So, for V(r) we can write:

• Now, if we extract Rt , from this last equation we obtain:

48
 Maxwell’s equations
• ln the previous relations, the different symbols repre­sent:
• Rt : the resistivity of the homogeneous medium in ohm­-m2/m
• C : the conductivity in mho/m or siemens/m
• εo : the dielectric permittivity of vacuum (or dielectric constant) in farad/m (= 1/µ oc2 = 10-9/36π F/m)
• µ0 : the magnetic permeability in the vacuum expressed in henry/m (= 4π*10-7 H/m)
• р : the volumic density of charge
• q : the charge of а particle expressed in coulomb
• с : the propagation velocity in m/s
• r : the radial distance from the саble
• r : the unit vector in the direction defined from the char­ge producing the field to the point of observation
• dl : the elementary length along which the current tra­vels
• dr : the unit vector in the direction of the point of obs­ervation from the current element.

49
 Propagation of an electromagnetic wave
• The propagation equation of an electromagnetic wave is given by the following relation:

• The propagation constant in the frequency domain is given by the relation:

• The real term μεoω2εr corresponds to the phenomena of propagation and polarization.
• The imaginary iμCω term corresponds to the phenomenon of diffusion.
• These two phenomena coexist but their respective importance is а function of the angular frequency
ω. At 20 kHz the propagation may be neglected. At 1 GHz, the propagation is dominant and the
conduction тау be neglected in very resistive formations but must be taken into account in conductive
rocks.

50
 Introduction to GR Logs

• Gamma Ray Log Corrections

• Gamma Ray Logging: Interpretations
• Shale Volume Determination
• Lithology Model
• Shale Volume Determination

51
What does a Gamma Ray Log measure?

• Identify Clean Lithologies

• Calculate Volume of shale (Vshale)
• Evaluate which formula to use for Vshale
• Relate Washouts to Lithology
• Radiation volume and radiation strength
• Net to Gross

52
 GR Logs
• Measures natural gamma ray emissions from rock formations adjacent
to borehole
• Sources of gamma rays: minerals containing U, Th, K. Rd, Rn
• Total gamma ray (GR) reports total count (cumulative response of K, Th,
and U)
• Spectral gamma ray (SGR) separates the three elements

53
 GR Logs
• Three naturally radioactive isotopes abundant in nature:
• Potassium – part of clay mineral composition (particularly Illite)
• Thorium series – absorbed by clay minerals
• Uranium series – fixed by fine-grained organic material

54
 GR Measurement Scale
• Range of Measurement – 0 to 2000 gAPI
• Logging Speed – 3600 ft / hour
• Vertical resolution – 12 inches
• Depth of investigation – 24 inches
• Size of tool – about 5 - 12 ft
• Accuracy: ±5%
• Active element: NaI (photo scintillator)

55
 Spectral GR Measurement Scale
• Range of Measurement – 0 to 2000 gAPI
• Logging Speed – 1800 ft / hour
• Vertical resolution – 8 to 12 inches
• Depth of investigation – 9.5 inches
• Size of tool – 8 – 15 ft

• Accuracy
• K: ±0.4%
• Th: ±3.2 ppm
• U: ±2.3 ppm
56
Typical GR values

57
Typical Values – Spectral GR

58
GR vs Rock Type

From Bigelow after Russel

 GR Corrections
• Environmental corrections:
Hole size
Mud density
KCL mud

60
 Example
log

Initial discovery well

at Thunder Horse:
Oil sand : >320 ft
NtG > 0.98

From Mark Kitteridge

Summary: Natural & Spectral GR Tools
• Principle of Measurement
• Measures Total Scintillation Response to Natural Gamma Radiation Emitted by
the Formation
• Spectral Scintillation Measurement of Natural Gamma Ray Emitters (K, Th, U)
• Uses
• Shale Volume Index
• Uranium-corrected GR Curve (CGR = K+Th = SGR-U)
• Age corrections Vshale
• Well to Well Correlations for both Open Hole and Cased Hole
• Identify clean lithologies
• Combinable with nearly all other Logging Tools

62
Uses of
Spectral
Gamma Ray

Ellis, 1987
Gamma Ray Logging: Interpretations

64
Formation Lithology Model

65
Shale Volume Determination

66
70
Gamma log & Sequence Stratigraphy -
Interpreting Depositional Environment: Fining
Upward Sequence
• A gradual upward increase in gamma response
• Trend may reflect upward fining (e.g.,: a lithology change from
sand to shale) or upward fining of sand beds in a thinly
interbedded sand-shale unit
• This trend usually implies a decrease in depositional energy
• In a non-marine setting, fining upward is predominant within
meandering or tidal channel deposits with an upward decrease in
fluid velocity within a channel
• In a shallow-marine setting, this trend usually reflects an upward
deepening and a decrease in depositional energy (shoreline
retreat)
• In deep-marine settings, this trend reflects waning of submarine
fans
Environment of Deposition Interpretation –
Cylindrical Sequence
• Typical features: Low gamma count and sharp boundaries
• Trend predominant in:
fluvial channel sands
Turbidities (typically with greater range of thickness)
Aeolian sands
Evaporite basin-fill
Braided fluvial channel-fill
Carbonate shelf margins

72
Environment of Deposition Interpretation
– Coarsening Upward Sequence
A gradual upward decrease in gamma response
In shallow marine settings, this trend reflects a change from shale
dominated to sand dominated lithology and upward increase in
depositional energy with shallowing-upward and coarsening
In deep marine settings, this trend reflects an increase in the
sand contents of turbidite bodies.
This trend also may indicate gradual change from clastic to
carbonate deposition

73