MP 06 Birth of Modern Physics

CHAPTER 1
The Birth of Modern Physics

1.1 Classical Physics of the 1890s
1.2 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
1.3 Waves and Particles
1.4 Conservation Laws and Fundamental
Forces
1.5 The Atomic Theory of Matter
1.6 Outstanding Problems of 1895 and
James Clerk Maxwell
New Horizons (1831-1879)
The more important fundamental laws and facts of physical science have all been
discovered, and these are now so firmly established that the possibility of their ever
being supplanted in consequence of new discoveries is exceedingly remote… Our
future discoveries must be looked for in the sixth place of decimals.
- Albert A. Michelson, 1894
There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and
more precise measurement.
- Lord Kelvin, 1900
Prof. Rick Trebino, Georgia Tech, www.frog.gatech.edu
1.1: Classical Physics of the 1890s
Mechanics →
Electromagnetism →
← Thermodynamics
Mechanics began with
Galileo.
Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642)
The first great experimentalist: he established experimental

foundations.
He described the Principle of Inertia: If an object is at rest, it will
stay at rest unless something acts upon it to move it. Similarly, if an
object is moving in a straight line at constant speed, it will continue to
do so unless something acts upon it.
Mechanics achieved maturity
with Isaac Newton.
Three laws describing the relationship
between mass and acceleration.
Isaac
Newton’s first law (Law of inertia): Newton
An object with a constant velocity will (1642-
continue in motion unless acted upon 1727)
by some net external force.
Newton’s second law: Introduces   

 dp
force (F) as responsible for the change F  ma or F 
in linear momentum (p = mv): dt
Newton’s third law (Law of action and reaction):

The force exerted by body 1 on body 2 is equal in  
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force F21   F12
that body 2 exerts on body 1:
Electromagnetism culminated
with Maxwell’s Equations.
Gauss’s law:
 
E  0
(electric field)
 
Gauss’s law: B  0 James Clerk Maxwell
(magnetic field) (1831-1879)

  B
Faraday’s law:  E   These are in
t vacuum. In the
presence of

  E charges, there are
Ampère’s law:   B   0 0 additional “source
t terms.”
The Laws of Thermodynamics
First law: The change in the internal energy
ΔU of a system is equal to the heat Q added
to a system plus the work W done by the
system:
ΔU = Q + W
Second law: It’s impossible to convert heat

completely into work without some other
change taking place.
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907)

Added later:
The “zeroth” law: Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third
system are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Third law: It’s impossible to achieve absolute zero temperature.
Primary Results of the 19th Century:
Thermodynamics
Established the atomic theory

of matter, although not everyone
agreed on this issue
Established heat as energy
Created temperature as a
measure of internal energy
Introduced the concept of internal energy: kT/2 per degree of freedom,

where k is Boltzmann’s constant
Realized limitations: some energy processes cannot take place

1.2: The Kinetic Theory of Gases
The ideal gas equation

for n moles of a gas:
pV = nRT
where R is the ideal gas

constant, 8.31 J/(mole·K)
Average molecular
kinetic energy, K, is
directly related to
absolute temperature.
More Results of the Kinetic Theory
Speed
Maxwell derived the
3/ 2
molecular speed  m 
f (v)  4 N   v 2 exp( mv 2 / 2kT )
distribution f(v):  2 kT 
Boltzmann determined
the root-mean-squared (rms)
molecular speed:
3kT
f(v)
2
v rms  v 
m
thus relating kinetic energy

to temperature for an ideal
gas.
v (m/s)
Other Successes for Kinetic Theory
It predicted:
Diffusion
Mean free path
Collision frequencies
The speed of sound
1.3: Particles and Waves
Two ways in which energy is transported:
Point mass interaction,

which transfers
momentum and kinetic
energy: particles.
Extended regions wherein

energy is transferred by
vibrations and rotations
(collective motions of
particles): waves.
More Properties of Particles and Waves
Particles are highly localized in space

and time.
Particles have well-defined trajectories.
Particles are either there (1) or not (0).
Particles cannot cancel each other out.
Waves are extended in space and

time.
Waves have poorly defined trajectories.
Waves can be kind of there (~1/2) or
even the opposite of there (<0).
Waves can cancel out.
The Nature of Light
Newton promoted the particle

theory of light.
Particles of light would travel in
straight lines or rays.
Explained (what were thought to be)
sharp shadows
Explained reflection and refraction
Newton in action
"I procured me a triangular glass prism to

try therewith the celebrated phenomena of
colours." (Newton, 1665)
The Nature of Light
Huygens promoted the wave theory.

He felt that light propagates as a wave
from the point of origin.
He realized that light slowed down on
entering dense media.
Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1695)
He explained polarization,
reflection, refraction, and double
refraction.
Double refraction
Diffraction confirmed light to be a wave.
While scientists of Newton’s time

thought shadows were sharp, Young’s
two-slit experiment could only be
explained by light behaving as a wave.
Fresnel developed an accurate theory
of diffraction in the early 19th century.
Diffraction patterns
One slit
Augustin Fresnel
Two slits (1788-1827)
Light waves were found to be solutions
to Maxwell’s Equations.
The electromagnetic spectrum is vast.
visible
microwave infrared UV X-ray
106 105
radio wavelength (nm) gamma-ray
All electromagnetic waves

travel with a speed c, where:
c  
What exactly was waving was simply called “aether,” whose

existence and properties were left for future physicists to determine.
Triumph of Classical Physics:
The Conservation Laws
Conservation of energy: The sum of energy
(in all its forms) is conserved (does not change)
in all interactions.
Conservation of linear momentum: In the

absence of external forces, linear momentum is
conserved in all interactions.
Conservation of angular momentum: In the

absence of external torque, angular momentum
is conserved in all interactions.
These laws remain
Conservation of charge: Electric charge is the key to interpreting
even particle physics
conserved in all interactions.
experiments today.
19th Century Philosophy
Until the 19th century, science had been a branch

of philosophy, called Natural Philosophy. But the
scientific method and dedication to observable
data inspired a break and its own name.
Philosophy remained concerned with that which Aristotle

could not be measured: Metaphysics, which (384 BC – 322 BC)
means Beyond Physics. Its main concerns were,
and continue to be, Being, Existence, and Reality.
Typical questions of metaphysics:
Does essence precede existence? (Avicenna)

Is affirmation of existence nothing but denial of the number zero? (Frege)
Is being the value of a bound variable? (Quine)
Logical Positivism
Positivism, a field of philosophy developed
by Comte in the early 19th century, states
that the only authentic knowledge is that
which allows positive verification. Positivism
assumes that there is valid knowledge (truth)
only in scientific knowledge. Auguste Comte
(1798 – 1857)
“The traditional
pursuits of Positivism in its original form is no
philosophers longer popular. It has been modified
(metaphysics) to allow for knowledge that might
are as someday be verified.
unwarranted as
they have been
Even in this form, it leaves little or
unfruitful.” nothing for philosophers to do.
A. J. Ayer, But metaphysics remains popular
Language, Truth, and Logic even today among philosophers.
1.5: The Atomic
Theory of Matter
Initiated by Democritus and Leucippus
(~450 B.C.), who were the first to
use the Greek atomos, meaning
“indivisible.”
Proust (1754 – 1826) proposed the Law of definite proportions

(combining of chemicals always occurred with the same proportions
by weight).
Avogadro proposed that all gases at the same temperature,

pressure, and volume contain the same number of molecules
(atoms).
Cannizzaro (1826 – 1910) made the distinction between atoms and

molecules, advancing the ideas of Avogadro.
Opposition to Atomic Theory
Ernst Mach was an extreme logical
positivist, and he opposed the theory on the
basis of logical positivism, i.e., he couldn’t
see atoms.
Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 – 1932) supported

Mach, but did so based on unexplained
experimental results of radioactivity,
discrete spectral lines, and the formation of
molecular structures. (These are good
points, but not against atomic theory, as it
turned out.)
Ernst Mach
Boltzmann committed suicide in 1905, and (1838-1916)
it’s said that he did so because so many
people rejected his theory.
Unresolved Questions for Atomic Theory
at the End of the 19th Century
The atomic-theory controversy raised fundamental questions.
The constituents of
atoms became a
significant question.
The structure of matter

remained unknown.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope image of The atomic theory wasn’t

76 individually placed iron atoms on a actually universally
copper surface. This image (taken almost accepted.
100 years later) nicely proves the atomic
theory!
1.6: Problems in 19th Century Physics
In a speech to the Royal Institution in 1900, Lord Kelvin

himself described two “dark clouds on the horizon” of physics:
The question of the

existence of an electro-
magnetic medium—
referred to as “aether.”
The failure of classical

physics to explain
blackbody radiation.
More Problems: Discrete Spectral Lines
For reasons then unknown, atomic gases emitted only certain narrow
frequencies, unique to each atomic species.
Emission
Absorption
spectra
spectra
froma cold
from
gases gas
atomic of
inhot atoms.
front of a
hot source.
Wavelength
More Problems for 19th Century Physics
There were observed differences in the electric and magnetic fields

between stationary and moving reference systems.
When applying a simple Galilean transformation, Maxwell’s

Equations changed form.
The kinetic theory failed to predict

specific heats for real (non-ideal)
gases.
How did atoms form solids?

Bismuth crystal, an interesting solid
Additional discoveries in 1895-7 contrib-
uted to the complications.
X-rays (Roentgen)
Radioactivity (Becquerel)
Electron (Thomson)
Zeeman effect
Roentgen’s x-ray
image of his wife’s hand
(with her wedding ring)
Overwhelming
evidence for the
existence of atoms
didn’t arrive until
the 20th century.
In 1827 biologist Robert Brown
noted that, under a microscope,
tiny pollen grains wandered
randomly through water. Why?
In 1905, Einstein explained Brownian motion by molecules bumping into the

pollen grain and determined the approximate value of molecules’ size and
mass.
Jean Perrin (1870 – 1942) later experimentally verified Einstein’s

predictions.
The Beginnings of Modern Physics
These new discoveries and the

many resulting complications
c
required a massive revision of
fundamental physical
Quantum mechanics
Special
General relativity
assumptions. relativity
Speed
The introduction (~1905) of the
modern theories of special
relativity and quantum 19th-century
mechanics became the starting physics
point of this most fascinating 0
revision. General relativity Log (size)
(~1915) continued it.

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CHAPTER 1

The Birth of Modern Physics

The first great experimentalist: he established experimental

Newton’s second law: Introduces   

Newton’s third law (Law of action and reaction):

Second law: It’s impossible to convert heat

Lord Kelvin (1824-1907)

Established the atomic theory

Established heat as energy

Introduced the concept of internal energy: kT/2 per degree of freedom,

Realized limitations: some energy processes cannot take place

The ideal gas equation

where R is the ideal gas

thus relating kinetic energy

Two ways in which energy is transported:

Point mass interaction,

Extended regions wherein

Particles are highly localized in space

Waves are extended in space and

Newton promoted the particle

"I procured me a triangular glass prism to

Huygens promoted the wave theory.

While scientists of Newton’s time

All electromagnetic waves

What exactly was waving was simply called “aether,” whose

Conservation of linear momentum: In the

Conservation of angular momentum: In the

Until the 19th century, science had been a branch

Philosophy remained concerned with that which Aristotle

Typical questions of metaphysics:

Does essence precede existence? (Avicenna)

Proust (1754 – 1826) proposed the Law of definite proportions

Avogadro proposed that all gases at the same temperature,

Cannizzaro (1826 – 1910) made the distinction between atoms and

Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 – 1932) supported

The structure of matter

Scanning Tunneling Microscope image of The atomic theory wasn’t

In a speech to the Royal Institution in 1900, Lord Kelvin

The question of the

The failure of classical

There were observed differences in the electric and magnetic fields

When applying a simple Galilean transformation, Maxwell’s

The kinetic theory failed to predict

How did atoms form solids?

In 1905, Einstein explained Brownian motion by molecules bumping into the

Jean Perrin (1870 – 1942) later experimentally verified Einstein’s

These new discoveries and the

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