VCE Psychology –

Unit 1 Area of Study 2: How are mental processes and

How are behaviour behaviour influenced by the brain
and mental processes
shaped
 Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should
be able to analyse the role of the brain in
mental processes and behaviour and evaluate
Textbook Reference: Chapter 4 and 5 how brain plasticity and brain injury can
change biopsychosocial functioning
Learning Intentions  
To understand the influence of different approaches over time to
understanding the role of the brain, including the brain vs heart debate, mind–
body problem, phrenology, first brain experiments and neuroimaging
techniques
Success criteria
• I can describe the influence of different approaches over
time to understanding the role of the brain, including the
brain vs heart debate, mind–body problem, phrenology, first
brain experiments and neuroimaging techniques
 Key Knowledge

Different approaches over time

in understanding the role of the
brain in behaviour and mental
processes
 Introductory Information

• Psychology is the study of human states and behaviour

• Psychology is constantly evolving
• Our current psychological practices and understandings
have been influenced by findings dating back to ancient
times, in civilisation such as those in ancient Egypt, Greece,
China, and India
 Historical approaches to understanding the brain:

• Today, we have a relatively comprehensive understanding of the

brain both structurally and functionally, but this was not always the
case
• The historical approaches (including current) to understanding
the brain we will
investigate are: The brain versus heart debate, the mind-body
problem,
phrenology, first brain experiments and neuroimaging
 The brain versus heart debate
• This was a debate as to whether the heart or the brain is responsible
for mental processes, such as thought, emotion and behaviour
Heart hypothesis Brain hypothesis
The ancient Egyptians perceived the The ancient Greek philosophers
heart to be the primary source of believed that the brain was solely the
psychology and wisdom. It was responsible for mental functions,
believed that personality, logic and including personality and logic.
emotion originated here

Heart was carefully preserved in the

Brain versus • What do you think the current understanding is?
heart debate • What scientific evidence do we have for this?
(Justification)
 Mind-body problem
• The philosophical question as to whether our mind is separate
and distinguishable from our body, or whether they are on
integrated entity. There are twoMonism
Dualism opposing views:
Belief that the human mind and body Belief that the human mind and body
are separate and distinguishable from are together as a singular, complete
one another entity
The mind is non-physical whereas our The fact that our thoughts are not
body is made up of physical matter tangible does not mean they are
product of physical processes
Brain-scans demonstrate that certain
physiological processes take place
Mind-body problem
• Modern science tends to favour the
ideologies of monism however there is still
no definitive answer to the mind-body
problem as our understanding of concepts,
such as unconsciousness, are still incomplete
• Neither can be discounted as this point in
time

• Where do you stand in this debate?

Phrenology
• Study of shape and size of the human
skull to determine personality and
mental functioning
• Phrenologists (such as Gall in 1796),
believe that a human’s personality,
intelligence, and mental functioning
could be measured by feeling the
bumps, grooves, and shape of the skull
 Phrenology

• Gall suggested that the human brain was a sum of 27 ‘mind organs’,
each having a distinct physical location in the brain and its own
mental function
• Phrenologists proposed a direct correlation between the use of a
particular mind organ and its relative size within the brain
• Phrenology was believed to be scientifically accurate in the
1800s.
• It is now classed as a pseudoscience
 Phrenology:
Contributions
• Phrenology brought meaningful
contributions to our current
understanding of the brain
• We now understand that specific parts
of the brain are responsible for specific
functions- which is like the ideas
introduced by phrenologists
• Different areas of the brain are
constantly communicating however,
they do not work in isolation
Ablation
• Surgical removal, destruction, or cutting of a region of brain tissue
• It is irreversible
• For obvious reasons, experiments using brain ablation are considered
unethical on humans (though ablation may be used for brain
tumour removal)
• It helps researchers to determine how the brain responds to
damage and make inferences about localisation of function
Brain lesioning
• Inducing and/or studying the effects of damage to an area of the brain
• This can be surgically created or can be the result of an illness or
injury, such as brain damage incurred by a stroke
• Eg. Someone experiencing a stroke may have deprivation of oxygen to
the brain. This causes localised death of neurons. This is a brain
lesion. Neurologists can then determine what functional difficulties a
patient has acquired (linking structure to function)
Ablation vs. Brain lesions

Ablation= removal of parts of the brain

Lesions= damages to the brain
 Split Brain Studies
In severe cases of epilepsy sometimes surgeons cut
the connection between the two hemispheres. The
connection is a bundle of nerves called the corpus
callosum. Usually, the patient demonstrated no
consequence.

However, Split-brain studies by Sperry and Gazzaniga

demonstrate the importance of communication
between the two hemispheres and show that,
although the hemispheres work together on tasks,
each processes information differently and has
specialised functions.
The visual pathways
Information presented in the left visual field
goes to the right primary visual cortex in the
occipital lobe for processing.

Information presented in the right visual field

goes to the left primary visual cortex in the
occipital lobe for processing.
When our hemispheres are connected, we are
not aware of this because they communicate.
However, when the hemispheres are not
connected this can have consequences.
 Annotate the
diagram as the
teacher talks
through this
image
Hemispheric
specialisation

• Sperry and Gazzaniga found that the

left and right cerebral hemispheres
have different functions or
specialisations
• This is evidence for hemispheric
specialisation
• They found that the left hemisphere
specialises in language expression
and comprehension
 Neuroimaging techniques
• These refer to a range of techniques that are used to capture images
of the brain’s structure, function, and activities
• These methods are much less invasive and more precise
• They allow researchers to record brain activity as a task is being
Structural Functional
performed and see which brain areas are activated
CT PET
• There are structural and functional techniques
MRI fMRI
Computerised Axial Tomography Scan
(Structural)

A series of computer enhanced X-rays of

a slice (cross-section) of the brain
created from X-rays taken from different
angles.
A computer then builds them into
detailed cross-sectional images (or
slices) that show the structure of the
brain, but not its function.
 CAT is extremely useful for identifying the precise location and
CAT Scan: extent of damage to, or abnormalities in, various brain
structures or areas. A CAT scan can reveal damage due to

What it is strokes, tumors, injuries and other brain disorders /

degenerative diseases.

useful for
These scans reveal soft tissues more clearly than normal X-ray
pictures. Adjacent slices can be combined to form a 3D
representation and views along different planes.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Structural)

• The patient is surrounded by a large electromagnet

and exposed to short, powerful burst of strong
magnetic fields.
• This stimulates the brain’s tissue to emit signals,
which are then detected and analysed by a computer
to form an anatomical ‘slice’ of the patient’s brain.
MRI: What it is useful for

Like CAT, MRI has primarily been used for diagnosing

structural abnormalities of the brain.
However, MRI can be used to detect and display
extremely small abnormalities in the brain.
For example, MRI can more clearly distinguish between
brain cells that are cancerous and those that are
noncancerous.
Positron Emission Tomography (functional)

The PET Provides information about the functioning of

various parts of the brain. Prior to the scan being taken, the
person is given a sugar-like substance that contains a
harmless radioactive element.
When this substance enters the bloodstream it travels to the
brain. As particular parts of the brain are activated they
metabolise more of the sugar and radioactive compounds,
this enables a computer to construct a series of colour
coded, functional pictures showing the activity levels of the
brain during different tasks - (violet, blue, green, yellow and
red).
PET: What is it
useful for?
• Used to record the levels of activity in different
areas of the brain while the participant (or patient)
is involved in a cognitive activity of some kind, such
as thinking, imagining, remembering or talking.
• PET was originally designed to diagnose
abnormalities in the brain and is highly effective if
that area of the brain is structurally intact.
• PET technology can also provide information on the
brain functioning of specific groups or populations
of research interest, such as people with mental
illnesses.
Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging FMRI

This works like a standard MRI but the computer

analyses the blood–oxygen levels in the brain while
various tasks are undertaken, and creates an image
with color variations.
When an area of the brain is active, there is increased
blood flow to that area, as more oxygen is required by
the active, functioning neurons.
 Used to record the levels of activity in different
areas of the brain while the participant (or patient)
is involved in a cognitive activity of some kind, such
as thinking, imagining, remembering or talking.

FMRI :
What it is fMRI are more detailed than PET images.

useful for
Often used before brain surgery, enabling
neurosurgeons to locate the desired region and to
map the locus of critical brain functions
Task: Benefits and Limitations
• Summarise the benefits and limitations of the
techniques in the table provided
• We will then discuss these as a class
 Key Knowledge

The roles of the hindbrain,

midbrain and forebrain,
including the cerebral cortex, in
behaviour and mental processes
The Brain
• The brain is a component of the central nervous system,
which is a division of the nervous system
• The brain controls physiological and psychological
processes
• It is involved in every sensation you experience, every
thought you have, every movement you make, and every
memory you recall
The Brain
• The brain has different regions that contain different structures, each
with different functions
• They do not operate in isolation, rather they interact with each other
to enable processing or information and coordination of activity
• The brain increases in complexity as you move upwards
from the hindbrain to the forebrain
(hindbrain= vital functions)
 Hindbrain
• Responsible for coordinating basic survival functions,
including movement, breathing rate, heart rate, and digestion
Evolutionary wise: it was the first to develop
Why would this be the case?

It includes the cerebellum, medulla and pons

Hindbrain: Cerebellum
• Unit 3 Information
Hindbrain Homework Task
• Research the role of the medulla and pons
• Explain what would happen to someone who has
damaged to each of these (separately)
Midbrain
• Region at centre of the brain that is responsible for relaying
neural information between the hindbrain and the forebrain,
and between structurally higher brain areas and the spinal
cord
• Every sensory and motor message that is transmitted
between the brain and the spinal cord passes through it
• The reticular formation is found within the midbrain
Forebrain
• The forebrain has an important role in sophisticated
mental processes, including cognition, perception,
learning, language, and memory
• The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus and
hypothalamus
Forebrain Homework Task
• Research the role of the hypothalamus and thalamus
• Explain what would happen to someone who has
damaged to each of these (separately)
Forebrain: Cerebrum/cerebral cortex
• Thickness: approximately 3 sheets of paper/ 2.5mm
thick
• It consists of around 16 billion neurons within its
convoluted structure
• Important role in behaviour and mental processes
Cerebral cortex
• The cerebral cortex is composed of three different types of
functional areas
Area Explanation
Motor areas Functions related to initiating and executing motor movements.
These areas are made up of motor neurons..
Sensory areas Functions related to receiving and processing information from
the five senses. These areas are made up of sensory neurons..
Association These areas integrate information from both motor and sensory
areas areas to execute complex mental processes..
 Cerebral cortex
• Divided into two cerebral hemispheres
• These are the left and right hemispheres (as mentioned in Split brain
studies content)
• The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibres that connects the two
cerebral hemispheres
• The cortex has four lobes- frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal
lobe
Frontal Lobe
The frontal lobe is the largest of the four lobes and occupies the
upper forward half of each cerebral hemisphere, right behind your
forehead.
Located at the rear of each frontal lobe and running roughly across
the top of your head is a strip of neural tissue called the primary
motor cortex.
The primary motor cortex is specifically involved in controlling
voluntary bodily movements through its control of skeletal muscles.
 
The primary motor cortex in the left frontal lobe controls voluntary
movements on the right side of the body. Likewise, the primary
motor cortex in the right frontal lobe controls voluntary
movements on the left side of the body.
Primary Motor Cortex

• The amount of cortex devoted to a

particular body part corresponds to the
complexity, or ‘fineness’, of its
movements.
• Parts that we are able to move with
precision (such as fingers) take up more
space than parts over which we have less
control (such as the shoulder and thigh).
Frontal Lobe (other
functions)

The frontal lobe also performs complex mental functions and

is involved with attention, personality, control of emotions
and expression of emotional behaviour.
It also contains Broca’s area, in the left hemisphere, which
plays a crucial role in speech production. It is roughly in front
of, and slightly above, the left ear.
Broca’s area has a crucial role in the production of articulate
speech; that is, speech that is clear and fluent. In particular,
Broca’s area is involved with coordinating movements of the
muscles required for speech and supplying this information to
the appropriate motor cortex areas.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNpst50Zb98
The Case of Phineas Gage

• Phineas Gage, a construction foreman working on a new railway line in the US

state of Vermont, was only 25 years old when he suffered a massive head injury
that seriously injured his frontal lobes.
• There was no immediate indication that Gage’s mental or physical abilities had
been affected by the accident, despite injury to both his frontal lobes including
the prefrontal cortex.
• However, the once friendly, considerate and quietly spoken Phineas Gage is
reported to have become impatient, crudely spoken, aggressive, irresponsible
and hard to get along with. His friends and acquaintances said that he had
changed so much he was no longer the person they had known.
Key Science Skills: Case
Studies

• Phineas Gage is an example of a case study

• What are strengths and limitations of case studies?
Key
Information
 The Frontal Lobe in Action
1. If you drop me, I'm sure to crack but give me a smile and I'll always smile back.

2.Until I am measured, I am not known. Yet how you miss me when I have flown.

3. What always runs but never walks, often murmurs, never talks, has a bed but
never sleeps, has a mouth but never eats?
Answers
Frontal Lobe in Action: Parking Problem

https://www.transum.org/Maths/Investigation/CarPark/
Parietal Lobe

• The parietal lobe is involved in attention and

spatial reasoning.
• It liaises with other lobes to allow us to sense
the position of our body in space.
• It includes the primary sensory cortex, which
receives and processes sensory information
• The amount of cortex devoted to a particular
body part corresponds to the sensitivity and
amount of use of the body part.
 Homunculus

The misshapen appearance of the person

called homunculus is used to represent the
disproportionate areas of the primary
sensory cortex devoted to different parts of
the body.

What areas are highly represented on

sensory cortex?
Key
Information
The Parietal Lobe in Action
Mental rotation refers to moving things around in your head. It is one of the numerous visuospatial skills that we
all have. Mental rotation relies mostly on the parietal areas of your brain.

The activity which follows utilises your mental rotation skills.

The top shape is your model.

Among the 3 shapes below the model, only one matches the model. To figure out which one does you will
probably have to move the shapes around in your head.
Activity: Mental Rotation
Activity: Mental Rotation
Activity: Mental Rotation
Activity: Mental Rotation
Activity: Mental Rotation
Activity: Mental Rotation
Temporal Lobe

• The temporal lobe contains the primary

auditory cortex, which receives and
processes sounds from both ears.
• It is also involved in memory, object
identification and emotional responses
to sensory information and memories.
• It also contains Wernicke’s area, in the
left hemisphere, which is crucial in
speech comprehension.
The Temporal
Lobe in
Action
Close your eyes and try to
write down as many sounds
that you identify as possible.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oiYmkDSWFFw
Key
Information
Occipital Lobe

The occipital lobe contains the primary

visual cortex.
It is largely engaged in the sense of
vision, but also interacts with other
lobes to integrate visual information
with other information, like memory,
language and sounds.
Key
Information
The Occipital Lobe
in Action

• Carefully watch the video

“Who Did It?”
• What did you see?
Video
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=ubNF9QNEQLA
.
 Case Study 1

Dear Dr. Neuro,

My Uncle Bob was hospitalized after he fell off a

ladder and hit his head. Before his accident he
was able to concentrate, plan and make sensible
decisions. However, after his accident his seems
to be unable to focus on anything. Why is this the
case and what other side effects should we
expect?

Concerned nephew.
Case Study 2

Dear Dr. Neuro,

My friend Charles suffered a stroke. The

doctor said that the only area of his
brain damaged is Wernicke’s area. What
is this, and how will damage to this area
affect Charles?

Charles’ friend.
Case Study 3

Dear Dr. Neuro,

After my daughter Alana acquired head injuries in

a car accident, she experienced some speech
difficulties. Even though she has no difficulty
understanding the speech of other people, she
seems to have difficulty producing her own
speech. She knows what she wants to say but
can’t get the words out. What is wrong???

Worried mother.
Case Study 4

Dear Dr. Neuro,

When one of my students Tim was 10 years old he fell

down a flight of stairs. Prior to his fall, Tim was a placid
boy who liked to spend his time reading and was doing
well at school. Three months later his parents took him
to the doctors because he was hyperactive, angry and
aggressive. His former friends no longer want to play
with him. He also seems to have difficulty kicking the
football. What is wrong with Tim?

Tim’s teacher.
Case Study 5

Dear Dr. Neuro,

One day when my friend was jogging along the

riverside he was caught in a storm. A tree
branch hit him on the head and he was knocked
unconscious. That night he had a headache and
went to bed early. The next morning his left leg
felt numb and he had difficulty controlling its
movement. Why would this be the case as he
didn’t hurt his leg in the accident at all?
Confused friend.
 Key Knowledge
The capacity of the brain to
change in response to
experience and brain trauma,
including factors influencing
neuroplasticity and ways to
maintain and/or maximise
 Key Knowledge

The impact of an acquired

brain injury (ABI) on a
person’s biological,
psychological and social
functioning
 Key Knowledge

The contribution of
contemporary research to the
understanding of neurological
disorders
 Key Knowledge

Chronic traumatic
encephalopathy (CTE) as an
example of emerging research
into progressive and fatal brain
disease