DATA COMMUNICATION

PROTOCOLS
 Data Link Protocols

Asynchronous Synchronous
Protocols Protocols
• Xmodem
• Ymodem
• Zmodem
• BLAST
• Kermit Character-oriented Bit-oriented

Asynchronous: treat each character in a bit stream independently

Synchronous: take whole bit stream and chop it into characters of equal size
The Use of the Word
Asynchronous
 Asynchronous Transmission
 Generally refers to the transmission of
characters with each character carrying
information about timing
 Asynchronous Communication
 Refers to overall communication between
two points
 An example in this case would be ATM
Asynchronous Transmission
Applied to Characters

Stop Bit Start Bit

Character Frame

Each character is individually timed.

 Asynchronous Transmission
Applied to Packets
Burst of Data

Packets of data Packets of data

A B

Intermittent transmission of packets of data

Asynchronous Transmission/Communication
Application

 Character by character transmission

 Data packet transmission at present
Speed Variations In
Asynchronous Transmission
 Low and high-speed transmissions are possible
 Low speed
 Almost all modem based communications fall into
this category
 High speed
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
 Internet is a good example where
asynchronous communication is used
predominantly to carry the information
Asynchronous Protocols
 Long, long…time ago
 Not complex and easy to implement
 Slow
 Required start/stop bit and space
 Now mainly used in modem
  Replaced by high speed synchronous
 Data Link Protocols

Asynchronous Synchronous
Protocols Protocols
• Xmodem
• Ymodem
• Zmodem
• BLAST Character-oriented
• Kermit Bit-oriented
(Byte-oriented)
• BSC
Ymodem  data unit changes to 1024 bytes (Xmodem=128)
use CRC16
multiple files accepted
Zmodem  combination of X and Ymodem

BLAST (Blocked Asynchronous Transmission)  better than

Xmodem (full-duplex, sliding window flow conrol)

Kermit (Columbia U)  most widely used asyn. Protocol

(operation same as Xmodem)
Synchronous Protocols
 Character-oriented protocol
 Based on one byte (8-bit)
 Use ASCII for control character
 Not efficient  seldom used
 Bit-oriented protocol
 Based on individual bits
 One or multiple bits for control
 More efficient
Binary Synchronous Communication
(BISYNC)OR (BSC)
 Character-oriented protocol
 Half-duplex, stop-and-wait ARQ
 2 frame types
 Data frame
(data transmission)
 Control frame

(connect/disconnect and flow/error control)

 A simple BSC data frame
SYN : Alert the receiver for the incoming frame
BCC : can be LRC (longitudinal redundancy
check) or CRC (cyclic redundancy check)
This simple frame is seldom used

SYN = Synchronous idle = 0010110

STX = Start of text = 0000010
ETX = End of text = 0000011
A BSC frame with a header

Header Fields:
• address (sender/receiver)
• #frame identifier (0/1 for stop-and-wait ARQ)
 A multiblock frame

ITB = Intermediate text block

Probability of error: Frame size increases, error increases 
multiple faults occurs  Difficult to detect errors (error
cancel each others)
 Message is divided in several blocks
 Each block has STX, ITB and BCC
 Ending with ETX (end of text)
 Error detected, whole frame is discarded (needs
retransmission)
 ACK for entire frame
 one frame is entire message
Multiframe transmission

ETB = End of transmission Block

“Large Message” is broken down to multiple frame
 need ETB (End of transmission Block)
 need ETX (End of text)
 Half-duplex so ACK 0 and ACK 1 alternately
Control frame

Note: Control Frame is used to send command

* Establish connection
* Maintaining flow & error control
* terminating connection
Control frames
Control frames
Control frames
Data Transparency
 BSC is designed for text message
 Now, non-text message (graphics,…)
 Problem?
 BSC control character problem
 Data transparency: should be able to
send any data
 Byte stuffing

DLE = data link escape

Byte Stuffing 2 activities:
- Defining the transparent text region with DLE
- Preceding any DLE character within the
transparent region (extra DLE)
Problem still exist if text = DLE ?
 Insert an addition DLE next to the character
(DLE DLE)
 Data Link Protocols

Asynchronous Synchronous
Protocols Protocols
• Xmodem
• Ymodem
• Zmodem
• BLAST Character-oriented
• Kermit Bit-oriented
(Byte-oriented)
• BSC
Bit-oriented protocol
 Represent more information into shorter
frame
 Avoid the transparency problems
 Bit-oriented
Protocols

SDLC HDLC LAPs LANs

SDLC: Synchronous data link control – IBM

HDLC: High-level data link control – ISO
LAPs : Link access procedure
HDLC
 Support half/full – duplex over point-to-
point and multipoint links
 HDLC system characterization
 Station types
 Configurations
 Communication modes
 Frames
HDLC station types
 Primary station
 The station that controls the medium by sending
“command”
 Secondary station
 The station that “response” to the primary station
 Combined station
 The station that can both command and response
HDLC configurations
 The relationship of hardware devices on
a link
 3 configurations of all stations
(primary/secondary/combined)
 Unbalanced
 Symmetrical
 Balanced
HDLC Configurations:
Unbalanced (master/slave)
HDLC Configurations:
Symmetrical
HDLC Configurations:
Balanced
 HDLC communication modes
Mode : describe “Who controls the link”

NRM: Normal response mode (master/slave)

ARM: Asynchronous response mode
(secondary can initiate if idle, all transmissions are made to primary station)
ABM: Asynchronous balanced mode (point-to-point equal)
HDLC frame
 3 frame types
 Information frame (I-frame)
 Supervisory frame (S-frame)
For ACK, Flow/Error controls
 Unnumbered frame (U-frame)
For Mode setting, Initialize, Disconnect
HDLC Frame
HDLC Frame
 HDLC Frame: Flag field

Flag:  beginning and ending of a frame

 Last flag can be the start of the next flag
Flag  similar to “Control Character”
 problem for transparency !!!  Bit Stuffing
Bit Stuffing
 How to differentiate data and flag?
 Adding one extra 0 whenever there are five
consecutive 1s in the data
HDLC: Bit stuffing
HDLC frame: Address field
 Primary station creates a frame
 destination address
 Secondary station creates a frame
 source address
 Can be one byte or more
HDLC Frame: Address field
HDLC Frame: Control field
N(R)  can be think as “ACK”
if correct  N(R) = next frame seq
else  N(R) = number of damaged frame (need
reTx)
In S-Frame  not transmit data, so do not need N(S)
 S-Frame for response (return N(R) )
Code  flow and error control information
 HDLC frame: Poll / Final

P/F: dual purposes

1) P/F = 0 no meaning (regular data)
2) P/F = 1 means “poll” when send by primary
P/F = 1 means “final” when send by secondary
HDLC Frame: Information field
 HDLC Frame: FCS field

FCS: Frame check sequence

HDLC: S-Frame
HDLC: Use of P/F field
HDLC: Use of P/F field

Piggybacking:
data + ack
HDLC: Use of P/F field
HDLC: Use of P/F field
HDLC: S-Frame
Acknowledgement
HDLC: S-Frame
Positive Acknowledgement
 RR
 Receiver sends “Positive Ack” (no data to send)
 N(R) = seq of next frame
 RNR
 Receiver sends “Positive Ack”
 N(R) = seq of next frame
 Receiver tells sender that sender cannot send any
frame until ‘RR’ frame is received
HDLC: S-Frame
Negative Acknowledgement
 Reject (REJ)
 Go-back-n ARQ
 N(R) = # of damage frame (and follow)
 Selective-Reject (SREJ)
 N(R) = # of damage frame
HDLC: U-Frame control field

For session management and control information

HDLC: U-Frame control field
HDLC: Polling example
HDLC: Selecting example
 HDLC: Peer-to-peer example

SABM: Set asynchronous balanced mode

UA: Unnumbered ack
HDLC: Peer-to-peer example
X.25 AND FRAME RELAY
 X.25
• X.25 is a packet-switching wide area network developed
by ITU-T in 1976.

• X.25 defines how a packet-mode terminal can be

connected to a packet network for the exchange of data.

• X.25 is what is known as subscriber network interface

(SNI) protocol.

• It defines how the user’s DTE communicates with the

network and how packets are sent over that network
using DCEs.
Figure 17-1

X.25

Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that converts user

information into signals or reconverts received signals. These can also be called tail
circuits.
A DTE device communicates with the data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). The
DTE/DCE classification was introduced by IBM.
A data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) is a device that sits between
the data terminal equipment (DTE) and a data transmission circuit.
It is also called data communications equipment and data carrier equipment.
Usually, the DTE device is theterminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem.In
a data station, the DCE performs functions such as signal conversion, coding, and line
clocking and may be a part of the DTE or intermediate equipment.
 The X.25 Protocol

DCE

X.25 DTE
Intra-Network Protocol
X.25 DCE DCE
DTE DCE
X.25

DCE DTE

66
• X.25 network is a packet switching network that used
X.25 protocol.
• X.25 is a standard packet switching protocol that has
been widely used in WAN.
• X.25 is a standard for interface between the host
system with the packet switching network in which it
defines how DTE is connected and communicates with
packet switching network.
• It uses a virtual circuit approach to packet switching
(SVC and PVC) and uses asynchronous (statistical)
TDM to multiplex packets.
Figure 17-2

X.25 Layers in Relation to the OSI Layers

 X.25 Layers

X.25 protocol specifies three layers:

i. Physical Layer (X.21)
ii. Frame Layer (LAPB)
iii. Packet Layer (PLP) (Packet Layer Protocol)
 X.25 – Physical Layers

-specifies the physical interface between the node

(computer, terminal) and the link that connected
to X.25 network.
-specifies a protocol called X.21 or X.21bis
(interface).
-similar enough to other PHY layer protocols,
such as EIA-232.
X.21 hardware interface
X.25 Frame Layer

- provides a reliable data transfer process

through data link control which used link access
procedure, balanced (LAPB) protocol.
- there are 3 categories of frame involved in the
LAPB frame format:
I-Frames – encapsulate PLP packets from the
network layer and before being passed to the
physical layer
Figure 17-3

Format of a Frame in X.25

Cont…

S-Frames – flow and error control in the frame

layer
U-Frames- used to set up and disconnect the
links between a DTE and a DCE.
In the frame layer, communication between a
DTE - DCE involves three phases:
1: Link Setup ; 2: Packet Transfer ; 3: Link
Disconnect
Figure 17-6

Frame Layer and Packet Layer Domains

 The X.25 Protocol
LAPB Link Setup and Disconnect

•SABM = Set Asynchronous Balanced

Mode
Local Local
DTE DCE
•UA Acknowledges SABM
•DISC Requests Disconnect
SABM
•UA Acknowledges DISC
UA •Exchange on Local Link Only

Now in Data Transfer Mode

DISC

UA

Now in Disconnected Mode

 The X.25 Protocol
LAPB Data Transfer

Local Local •I-Frame Contains

DTE DCE
Packet
I-Frame #1 •Seq from 0 - 7
RR N(R)=2 and back to 0
I-Frame #2
•RR Gives Next
RR N(R)=3
Expected I-Frame
I-Frame #3 •I-Frame Can also
I-Frame #0
N(R)=4
Acknowledge
X.25 Packet layer (PLP)

Packet Layer Protocol (PLP)

- it is the network layer in X.25
- this layer is responsible for establishing the
connection, transferring the data, and terminating
the connection between 2 DTEs.
- it also responsible for creating the virtual circuits
and negotiating network services between two
DTEs.
• Virtual circuits in X.25 are created at the network
layer (not the data link layers as in some other wide
area networks such as Frame Relay and ATM)
Figure 17-6

Frame Layer and Packet Layer Domains

 The X.25 Protocol
Call Setup

Local Local Remote Remote

DTE DCE DCE DTE

Call Request •Each Channel is Distinct

•Select Unused Channel
Locate Remote DCE
•Different Channel Numbers
Incoming Call on Each End
•End to End is “Virtual
Internal Circuit”
Protocol
Call Accepted •VC = Local Chnl + Network
Route + Remote Chnl
•Internal Network Protocol
Not Specified
Call Connected
•Call Setup is End to End
 The X.25 Protocol
Call Clearing

Local Local Remote Remote

DTE DCE DCE DTE

Clear Request Remote DCE from •Each Channel is Distinct

Call Setup
•Channels Become Available
•End to End is “Virtual
Clear Indication Circuit”
•Internal Network Protocol
Internal Not Specified
Protocol
Clear Confirm •Clearing May be End to End
or Local
•Clear Packet Used to
Report Procedure Errors
Clear Confirm
 The X.25 Protocol
Data Transfer w/End to End Ack

Local Local Remote Remote

DTE DCE DCE DTE

Data Packet #1 Remote DCE from •Each Channel is Distinct

Call Setup
•End to End is “Virtual
Circuit”
Data Packet #1 •Internal Network Protocol
Not Specified
Internal •Each Data Pkt Has Seq Nr
Protocol
RR P(R)=2 •Each RR Has Next Expected
Seq Nr
•Example Shows End to End
Acknowledgement
RR P(R)=2
 The X.25 Protocol
Data Transfer w/Local Ack

Local Local Remote Remote

DTE DCE DCE DTE

Data Packet #1 Remote DCE from •Each Channel is Distinct

Call Setup
•End to End is “Virtual
Circuit”
RR P(R)=2 Data Packet #1 •Internal Network Protocol
Not Specified
Internal •Each Data Pkt Has Seq Nr
Protocol
RR P(R)=2 •Each RR Has Next Expected
Seq Nr
Data Packet #2
•Example Shows Local
Acknowledgement
Data Packet #2
RR P(R)=3
RR P(R)=3
Implementation of X.25

• X.25 protocol is a packet-switched virtual

circuit network.
• Virtual Circuit in X.25 created at the network
layer. unlike Frame Relay and ATM which
both VC created at Data Link Layer.
• Fig 17.7 shows an X.25 network in which 3
virtual circuits have been created between
DTE A and 3 other DTEs.
Virtual Circuits
in X.25
Virtual Circuit in X.25
• Each virtual circuit in X.25 should be
identified for use by the packets.
• The VC in X.25 is called logical channel
number (LCN). See fig 17.8
LCNs in X.25
PVC and SVC in X.25

• PVC = permanent Virtual Circuit

• SVC = Switched virtual circuit
• X.25 applied both PVC and SVC.
• PVCs are established by the X.25 network
providers. (similar to the leased line in
telephone networks.)
• SVCs are established at each session. Involve 5
events (like 3-phase). Setup, transfer &
connection released.
5 events in SVC

• A Link is setup between DTE and DCE also

between REMOTE DTE and DCE
• A virtual circuit is established between the
local DTE and the remote DTE.
• Data are transferred between the two DTEs.
• The virtual circuit is released
• The link is disconnected
 Frame Relay
• Packet-switching with virtual-circuit
technology
• Improvement of previous technology X.25
• Operate only at the PHY and Data link
layer.
Frame Relay: Why it is needed?

• Higher Data Rate at Lower Cost

• Allow Bursty Data
• Less Overhead Due to Improved
Transmission Media (compared to prev.
tech X.25)
 Higher Data Rate at Lower Cost

•Fig. Frame Relay versus Pure Mesh T-Line Network

•To connect all the highspeed LANs, it is better used frame-relay
network rather than T-Line Network which cost a lot of money
and impractical
Frame Relay Operation

• Frame relay provides permanent virtual

and switched virtual circuit connections
(PVC and SVC)
• The devices that connects users to the
network are DTEs.
• The switches that route the frames thru
the network are DCEs (see fig 18.5)
Frame Relay Network
Virtual Circuit in FR
• FR is a virtual circuit network. It therefore
does not use PHY addresses to define the
DTEs connected to the network.
• It uses VCI called Data Link Connection
Identifier (DLCI).
• DLCI is assigned to the DTEs when Virtual
Circuit is established for connection
DLCIs
PVC DLCIs
SVC DLCIs
FR Operation: SVC and PVC
• It uses a virtual circuit identifier that is known as data link
connection identifier (DLCI).
• Two types of connection:
1. Permanent virtual connection (PVC)
• The connection is already exist for 2 DTE in the network

• 2 DLCI is given for each end of the connection

2. Switched virtual connection (SVC)

• Everytime when one DTE needs to connect to other

DTE, VC will be established. It needs a protocol that

has network layer function and network layer
addressing like IP.
• Generally, local DTE will send a SETUP message to the

remote DTE which will response by sending message

CONNECT.
• VC will be establish for sending the data

• Message RELEASE is sent to terminate the connection.

SVC Setup and Release
Comparing Layers in
Frame Relay and X.25
 FRAD

To handle frames arriving from other protocols, Frame Relay

uses a device called a FRAD.
A FRAD assembles and disassembles frames coming from other
protocols to allow them to be carried by Frame Relay frames.
A FRAD can be implemented as a separate device or as part of a
switch.
Figure 12.3 Frame Relay frame
Adv of Frame Relay tech.
• Higher speed than X.25 (44.376 Mbps)
• Application that used TCP/IP protocol such as
email/http/chat can easily use Frame relay as it
backbone because FR operates at only 2 layer
(DL and PHY).
• Allow burst data
• Allow frame size of 9000 bytes, which can
accommodate all LAN frames
• Less expensive compared to other WANs tech.
Disadv. Of Frame Relay
• Max. transfer rate is at 44.376. Not enough
speed compared to nowadays demand
• allows variable-length frames which may
cause varying delays for different users.
• Because of the varying delays, which are
not under user control, Frame relay is not
suitable for sending delay sensitive data
such as real time voice or video. E.g. FR
not suitable for teleconferencing.