Sample Exercise 6.

1 Calculating an Average Rate of Reaction

From the data given in the caption of this Figure 6.1, calculate the average
rate at which A disappears over the time interval from 20 s to 40 s.

Figure 6.1.

Solution
Analyze: We are given the concentration of A at 20 s (0.54 M) and at 40
s (0.30 M) and asked to calculate the average rate of reaction over this
time interval.
Plan: The average rate is given by the change in concentration, Δ[A],
divided by the corresponding change in time, Δt. Because A is a
reactant, a minus sign is used in the calculation to make the rate a
positive quantity.
Practice Exercise
For the reaction pictured in Figure , calculate the average rate of
appearance of B over the time interval from 0 to 40 s.
Answer: 1.8 × 10–2 M/s

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.2 Calculating an Instantaneous Rate of Reaction
Using this Figure 6.2., calculate the instantaneous rate of disappearance
of C4H9Cl at t = 0 (the initial rate).
Solution
Analyze: We are asked to determine an instantaneous rate from a graph of
concentration versus time.
Plan: To obtain the instantaneous rate at t = 0, we must determine the
slope of the curve at t = 0. The tangent is drawn on the graph.

Figure 6.2.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.2 Calculating an Instantaneous Rate of Reaction
Using Figure 6.2, calculate the instantaneous rate of disappearance of
C4H9Cl at t = 0 (the initial rate).
Solution
The slope of this straight line equals the change in the vertical axis
divided by the corresponding change in the horizontal axis (that is,
change in molarity over change in time).
Solve: The straight line falls from [C4H9Cl] = 0.100 M to 0.060 M in the
time change from 0 s to 210 s, as indicated by the tan triangle shown in
Figure 14.4. Thus, the initial rate is

Practice Exercise
Using Figure 6.2, determine the instantaneous rate of disappearance of
C4H9Cl at t = 300 s.
Answer: 1.1 × 10–4 M/s

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.3 Relating Rates at Which Products Appear and
Reactants Disappear
(a) How is the rate at which ozone disappears related to the rate at which
oxygen appears in the reaction
2 O3(g) → 3 O2(g)? (b) If the rate at which O2 appears, Δ[O2]/ Δt, is 6.0 ×
10–5 M/s at a particular instant, at what rate is O3 disappearing at this
Solution
same time, –Δ[O3]/Δ t?
Analyze: We are given a balanced chemical equation and asked to relate
the rate of appearance of the product to the rate of disappearance of
the reactant.
Plan: We can use the coefficients in the chemical equation as shown in
Equation
Solve: (a)14.4 to the
Using express the relative
coefficients in rates of reactions.
the balanced equation and the
relationship given by Equation 14.4,
we have:

(b) Solving the equation from part

(a) for the rate at which
O3disappears, –Δ[O3]/ Δt we have:

Check: We can directly apply a

stoichiometric factor to convert the
O2 formation rate to the rate at
which the O3 disappears:
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.3 Relating Rates at Which Products Appear and Reactants
Disappear

Practice Exercise
The decomposition of N2O5 proceeds according to the following equation:

2 N2O5(g) → 4 NO2(g) + O2(g)

If the rate of decomposition of N2O5 at a particular instant in a reaction

vessel is 4.2 × 10–7 M/s, what is the rate of appearance of (a) NO2, (b)
O2?
Answer: (a) 8.4 × 10–7 M/s, (b) 2.1 × 10–7 M/s

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.4 Relating a Rate Law to the Effect of concentration on Rate

Consider a reaction A + B → C for which rate = k[A][B]2. Each of the

following boxes represents a reaction mixture in which A is shown as red
spheres and B as purple ones. Rank these mixtures in order of increasing
rate of reaction.

Solution

Analyze: We are given three boxes containing different numbers of

spheres representing mixtures containing different reactant
concentrations. We are asked to use the given rate law and the
compositions of the boxes to rank the mixtures in order of increasing
reaction rates.
Plan: Because all three boxes have the same volume, we can put the
number of spheres of each kind into the rate law and calculate the rate
for each box.
Solve: Box 1 contains 5 red spheres and 5 purple spheres, giving the
following rate:

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
The
Withslowest rate
contributions from is
Patrick 63k (box 2), and the highest
Woodward is 147k (box 3). Thus, All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.4 Relating a Rate Law to the Effect of concentration on Rate
Solution (continued)
Check: Each box contains 10 spheres. The rate law indicates that in this
case [B] has a greater influence on rate than [A] because B has a higher
reaction order. Hence, the mixture with the highest concentration of B
(most purple spheres) should react fastest. This analysis confirms the
Practice2Exercise
order < 1 < 3.
Assuming that rate = k[A][B], rank the mixtures represented in this Sample
Exercise in order of increasing rate.
Answer: 2 = 3 < 1

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.5 Determining Reaction Order and Units of Rate Constants
(a) What are the overall reaction orders for the reactions described in
these equations (a) and (b). ? (b) What are the units of the rate constant
for the rate law in Equation (a).?
2 N2O5(g) 4 NO2(g) +
Rate = k [N2O5 ]O2 (g)
(a)
Solution
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) CCl4(g) + HCl (g) Rate = k
Analyze: We are [CHCl
given two rate laws and asked
(b) to express (a) the overall
3 ] [Cl2 ]
1/2
reaction order for each and (b) the units for the rate constant for the
first reaction.
Plan: The overall reaction order is the sum of the exponents in the rate
law. The units for the rate constant, k, are found by using the normal
units for rate (M/s) and concentration (M) in the rate law and applying
algebra to solve for k.
Solve: (a) The rate of the reaction in Equation (a) is first order in
N2O5 and first order overall. The reaction in Equation (b) is first order
in CHCl3 and one-half order in Cl2. The overall reaction order is three
halves.
(b) For the rate law for Equation (a), we have

Notice that the units of the rate constant change as the overall order
of the reaction changes.
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
 Sample Exercise 6.5 Determining Reaction Order and Units of Rate Constants

Practice Exercise
(a) What is the reaction order of the reactant H2 in Equation (c)? (b)
What are the units of the rate constant for Equation (c)?
Answer: (a) 1, (b) M-1 s-1

H2(g) + l2(g) 4 Hl(g) Rate = k [H2 ](c)

[l2 ]

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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Sample Exercise 6.6 Determining a Rate Law from Initial Rate Data

The initial rate of a reaction A + B → C was measured for several

different starting concentrations of A and B, and the results are as
follows:

Using these data, determine (a) the rate law for the reaction, (b) the
rate constant, (c) the rate of the reaction when [A] = 0.050 M and [B] =
Solution
0.100 M.
Analyze: We are given a table of data that relates concentrations of
reactants with initial rates of reaction and asked to determine (a) the
rate law, (b) the rate constant, and (c) the rate of reaction for a set
of concentrations not listed in the table.
Plan: (a) We assume that the rate law has the following form: Rate =
k[A]m[B]n so we must use the given data to deduce the reaction orders m
and n. We do so by determining how changes in the concentration change
the rate. (b) Once we know m and n, we can use the rate law and one of
the sets of data to determine the rate constant k. (c) Now that we know
both the rate constant and the reaction orders, we can use the rate law
with the given concentrations to calculate rate.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.6 Determining a Rate Law from Initial Rate Data
Solution (continued)
Solve: (a) As we move from experiment 1 to experiment 2, [A] is held
constant and [B] is doubled. Thus, this pair of experiments shows how
[B] affects the rate, allowing us to deduce the order of the rate law
with respect to B. Because the rate remains the same when [B] is
doubled, the concentration of B has no effect on the reaction rate. The
In experiments
rate 1 and 3,zero
law is therefore [B] order
is held
in B (that is, n = 0).
constant so these data show how [A]
affects rate. Holding [B] constant
while doubling [A] increases the
rate fourfold. This result indicates
that rate is proportional to [A]2
(that is, the reaction is second
order in A). Hence, the rate law is

This rate law could be reached in a

more formal way by taking the ratio
of the rates from two experiments:

Using the rate law, we have

2n equals 1 under only one

condition:

We can deduce the value of m in a

similar fashion:
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.6 Determining a Rate Law from Initial Rate Data
Solution (continued)
Because 2m = 4, we conclude that

(b) Using the rate law and the data

from experiment 1, we have

(c) Using the rate law from part (a)

and the rate constant from part (b),
we have

Because [B] is not part of the rate law, it is irrelevant to the rate, if
there is at least some B present to react with A.

Check: A good way to check our rate law is to use the concentrations in
experiment 2 or 3 and see if we can correctly calculate the rate. Using
data from experiment 3, we have

Thus, the rate law correctly reproduces the data, giving both the correct
number and the correct units for the rate.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.6 Determining a Rate Law from Initial Rate Data
Practice Exercise
The following data were measured for the reaction of nitric oxide with
hydrogen:

(a) Determine the rate law for this reaction. (b) Calculate the rate
constant. (c) Calculate the rate when
[NO] = 0.050 M and [H2] = 0.150 M
Answers: (a) rate = k[NO]2[H2]; (b) k = 1.2 M–2 s–1; (c) rate = 4.5 × 10–4
M/s

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.7 Using the Integrated First-Order Rate Law
The decomposition of a certain insecticide in water follows first-order
kinetics with a rate constant of 1.45 yr–1 at 12 °C. A quantity of this
insecticide is washed into a lake on June 1, leading to a concentration of
5.0 × 10–7 g/cm3. Assume that the average temperature of the lake is 12 °C.
(a) What is the concentration of the insecticide on June 1 of the
following year? (b) How long will it take for the concentration of the
Solution
insecticide to decrease to 3.0 × 10–7 g/cm3?
Analyze: We are given the rate constant for a reaction that obeys first-
order kinetics, as well as information about concentrations and times,
and asked to calculate how much reactant (insecticide) remains after one
year. We must also determine the time interval needed to reach a
particular insecticide concentration. Because the exercise gives time in
(a) and asks for time in (b), we know that the integrated rate law
equation for first -order reaction , is required.
Plan: (a) We are given k = 1.45 yr–1, t = 1.00 yr and [insecticide]0 =
5.0 × 10–7 g/cm3, and so Equation 14.13 can be solved for [insecticide]t.
Solve:
(b) (a) Substituting
We have k = 1.45 yr–1,the known
[insecticide] 0 = 5.0 × 10
–7
g/cm3, and
quantities into= Equation
[insecticide] 3.0 × 10–714.13,
g/cm3, we
and so we can solve Equation 14.13 for
t
have
time, t.
We use the ln function on a
calculator to evaluate the
secondterm on the right, giving

To obtain [insecticide]t=1 yr, we use

the inverse natural logarithm, or
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
ex, Byfunction on H.
Theodore E. Brown, the calculator:
Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.7 Using the Integrated First-Order Rate Law
Solution (continued)
Note that the concentration units
for [A]t and [A]0 must be the same.

(b) Again substituting into equation

, with [insecticide]t = 3.0 × 10–7
g/cm3, gives

Solving for t gives

Check: In part (a) the concentration remaining after 1.00 yr (that is, 1.2
× 10–7 g/cm3) is less than the original concentration (5.0 × 10–7 g/cm3), as
it should be. In (b) the given concentration (3.0 × 10–7 g/cm3) is greater
than that remaining after 1.00 yr, indicating that the time must be less
than a year. Thus, t = 0.35 yr is a reasonable answer.
Practice Exercise
The decomposition of dimethyl ether, (CH3)2O, at 510 °C is a first-order
process with a rate constant of
6.8 × 10–4 s–1:

If the initial pressure of (CH3)2O is 135 torr, what is its pressure after
1420 s?
Answer: 51 torr

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.8 Determining Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law
The following data were obtained for the gas-phase decomposition of
nitrogen dioxide at 300 °C,

Is the reaction first or second order in NO2?

Solution
Analyze: We are given the concentrations of a reactant at various times
during a reaction and asked to determine whether the reaction is first
or second order.
Plan: We can plot ln[NO2] and 1/[NO2] against time. One or the other will
be linear, indicating whether the reaction is first or second order.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.8 Determining Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law
Solution (continued)
Solve: To graph ln[NO2] and 1/[NO2] against time, we will first prepare
the following table from the data given:

As Figure 14.8 shows, only the plot of 1/[NO2] versus time is linear.
Thus, the reaction obeys a second-order rate law: Rate = k[NO2]2. From
the slope of this straight-line graph, we determine that
k = 0.543 M–1 s–1 for the disappearance of NO2.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.8 Determining Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law
Solution (continued)

Practice Exercise
Consider again the decomposition of NO2 discussed in the Sample Exercise.
The reaction
is second order in NO2 with k = 0.543 M–1 s–1. If the initial concentration
of
NO2 in a closed vessel is 0.0500 M, what is the remaining concentration
after 0.500 h?
Answer: Using the integrated rate law equation for second -order reaction
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh–3Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
we find [NOE.2]
By Theodore = 1.00
Brown, H. Eugene×LeMay,
10 BruceM E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.9 Determining the Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction
The reaction of C4H9Cl with water is a first-order reaction. Figure 6.9
shows how the concentration of C4H9Cl changes with time at a particular
temperature. (a) From that graph, estimate the half-life for this
reaction. (b) Use the half-life from (a) to calculate the rate constant.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Solution
Analyze: We are asked to estimate the half-life of a reaction from a
graph of concentration versus time and then to use the half-life to
calculate the rate constant for the reaction.
Plan: (a) To estimate a half-life, we can select a concentration and
then determine the time required for the concentration to decrease to
half of that value. (b) Equationt1/2 0.693
k
=

is used to calculate the rate constant from the half-life.

Solve: (a) From the graph, we see that the initial value of [C4H9Cl] is
0.100 M. The half-life for this first-order reaction is the time
required for [C4H9Cl] to decrease to 0.050 M, which we can read off the
graph. This point occurs at approximately 340 s. (b) Solving Equation
for k, we have

Practice Exercise
Check: At the end of
t1/2 the0.693 second half-life, which should occur at 680 s,
k
(a) concentration
the Using Equation = should have decreased by yet another calculate
factor tof forto
1/2 2, the
0.025 M. Inspection
decomposition of theofinsecticide
the graph shows that in
described this is indeed
Sample Exercisethe 6.7.
case.(b) How
long does it take for the concentration of the insecticide to reach one-
quarter of the initial value?
Answer: 0.478 yr = 1.51 × 107 s; (b) it takes two half-lives, 2(0.478 yr)
= 0.956 yr
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.10 Relating Energy Profiles to Activation Energies and
Speed of Reaction
Consider a series of reactions having the following energy profiles:

Rank the reactions from slowest to fastest assuming that they have nearly
the same frequency factors.
Solution
The lower the activation energy, the faster the reaction. The value of
ΔE does not affect the rate. Hence the order is (2) < (3) < (1).
Practice Exercise
Imagine that these reactions are reversed. Rank these reverse reactions
from slowest to fastest.
Answer: (2) < (1) < (3) because Ea values are 40, 25, and 15 kJ/mol,
respectively

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
 Sample Exercise 6.11 Determining the Energy of Activation

The following table shows the rate constants for the rearrangement of
methyl isonitrile at various temperatures :

(a) From these data, calculate the activation energy for the reaction. (b)
What is the value of the rate constant at 430.0 K?
Solution
Analyze: We are given rate constants, k, measured at several
temperatures and asked to determine the activation energy, Ea, and the
rate constant, k, at a particular temperature.
Plan: We can obtain Ea from the slope of a graph of ln k versus 1/T. and
the rate constant, k, at a particular temperature. Once we know Ea, we
can use the equation
Ea together with the given rate data to calculate the
k2 – ln k1 =
rate 1( 1K. -
constant at 430.0 )
R T1 T2

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.11 Determining the Energy of Activation
Solution (continued)
Solve: (a) We must first convert the
temperatures from degrees Celsius to
kelvins. We then take the inverse of
each temperature, 1/T, and the
natural log of each rate constant,
ln k. This gives us the table shown
at the right:

6.11
A graph of ln k versus 1/T results
in a straight line, as shown in
Figure 6.11.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.11 Determining the Energy of Activation
Solution (continued)
The slope of the line is obtained by
choosing two well-separated points,
as shown, and using the coordinates
of each:

Because logarithms have no units,

the numerator in this equation is
dimensionless. The denominator has
the units of 1/T, namely, K–1. Thus,
the overall units for the slope are
K. The slope equals –Ea/R. We use
We
thereport
value the
for activation energy
the molar gas to only two significant figures because we
constant
are
R inlimited
units ofbyJ/mol-K
the precision
(Table with which we can read the graph in Figure
10.2).
14.17.
(b) To determine
We thus obtain the rate constant,
k1, at T1 = 430.0 K, we can use
Equation 14.21 with Ea = 160 kJ/mol,
and one of the rate constants and
temperatures from the given data,
such as
k2 = 2.52 × 10–5 s–1and T2 = 462.9 K:

Thus,

Note that The

Chemistry: the units
Central Science,of k1 Edition
Eleventh are the Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
same
Withas thosefrom
contributions ofPatrick
k2.Woodward All rights reserved.
Sample Exercise 6.11 Determining the Energy of Activation
Practice Exercise
Using the data in Sample Exercise 6.11, calculate the rate constant for
the rearrangement of methyl isonitrile at 280 °C.
Answer: 2.2 × 10–2 s–1

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
With contributions from Patrick Woodward All rights reserved.