ME 3214 – Fluid

Machineries
Aiza A. Patadlas
Instructor
 Introduction: Basic Principles
1.1 Definition of a turbomachine
• Turbomachines are devices in which energy is transferred either to, or from, a
continuously flowing fluid by the dynamic action of one or more moving blade
rows.
• Turbo or turbinis is of Latin origin and implies that which spins or whirls around.
• Rotor or impeller changes the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid moving through it by
doing either positive or negative work, depending upon the effect required of the
machine.
Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.1 Examples of turbomachines. (a) Single stage axial flow compressor or pump, (b)
mixed flow pump, (c) centrifugal compressor or pump, (d) Francis turbine (mixed flow type), (e)
Kaplan turbine, and (f) Pelton wheel.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• Turbomachines are further categorized according to the nature of the flow path through
the passages of the rotor.
• When the path of the through-flow is wholly or mainly parallel to the axis of rotation,
the device is termed an axial flow turbomachine (e.g., Figures 1.1(a) and (e)).
• When the path of the through-flow is wholly or mainly in a plane perpendicular to the
rotation axis, the device is termed a radial flow turbomachine (e.g., Figure 1.1(c)).
• Mixed flow turbomachines and in this context, it refers to the direction of the through-
flow at the rotor outlet when both radial and axial velocity components are present in
significant amounts.
Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.1 Examples of turbomachines. (a) Single stage axial flow compressor or pump, (b)
mixed flow pump, (c) centrifugal compressor or pump, (d) Francis turbine (mixed flow type), (e)
Kaplan turbine, and (f) Pelton wheel.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• Turbomachines are further categorized according to the nature of the flow path through
the passages of the rotor.
• When the path of the through-flow is wholly or mainly parallel to the axis of rotation,
the device is termed an axial flow turbomachine (e.g., Figures 1.1(a) and (e)).
• When the path of the through-flow is wholly or mainly in a plane perpendicular to the
rotation axis, the device is termed a radial flow turbomachine (e.g., Figure 1.1(c)).
• Mixed flow turbomachines and in this context, it refers to the direction of the through-
flow at the rotor outlet when both radial and axial velocity components are present in
significant amounts.
Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.1 Examples of turbomachines. (a) Single stage axial flow compressor or pump, (b)
mixed flow pump, (c) centrifugal compressor or pump, (d) Francis turbine (mixed flow type), (e)
Kaplan turbine, and (f) Pelton wheel.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• Turbomachines are further categorized according to the nature of the flow path through
the passages of the rotor.
• When the path of the through-flow is wholly or mainly parallel to the axis of rotation,
the device is termed an axial flow turbomachine (e.g., Figures 1.1(a) and (e)).
• When the path of the through-flow is wholly or mainly in a plane perpendicular to the
rotation axis, the device is termed a radial flow turbomachine (e.g., Figure 1.1(c)).
• Mixed flow turbomachines and in this context, it refers to the direction of the through-
flow at the rotor outlet when both radial and axial velocity components are present in
significant amounts.
Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.1 Examples of turbomachines. (a) Single stage axial flow compressor or pump, (b)
mixed flow pump, (c) centrifugal compressor or pump, (d) Francis turbine (mixed flow type), (e)
Kaplan turbine, and (f) Pelton wheel.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• All turbomachines can be classified as either impulse or reaction machines
according to whether pressure changes are absent or present, respectively,
in the flow through the rotor.
• In an impulse machine all the pressure change takes place in one or more
nozzles, the fluid being directed onto the rotor.
• The Pelton wheel, Figure 1.1(f), is an example of an impulse turbine.
Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.1 Examples of turbomachines. (a) Single stage axial flow compressor or pump, (b)
mixed flow pump, (c) centrifugal compressor or pump, (d) Francis turbine (mixed flow type), (e)
Kaplan turbine, and (f) Pelton wheel.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
1.2 Coordinate system

Figure 1.2 The coordinate system and flow velocities within a turbomachine. (a) Meridional or
side view, (b) view along the axis, and (c) view looking down onto a stream surface.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• To simplify the analysis, it is usually assumed that the flow does not vary
in the tangential direction. In this case, the flow moves through the
machine on axi-symmetric stream surfaces, as drawn on Figure 1.2(a).
• The component of velocity along an axi-symmetric stream surface is
called the meridional velocity,
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• In purely axial flow machines, the radius of the flow path is constant and, therefore,
referring to Figure 1.2(c) the radial flow velocity will be zero and .
• In purely radial flow machines, the axial flow velocity will be zero and .
• The total flow velocity is made up of the meridional and tangential components and can
be written

• The swirl, or tangential, angle is the angle between the flow direction and the meridional
direction:
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Relative velocities
The use of relative velocities and relative flow quantities is fundamental to the study of
turbomachinery.
The relative velocity is the vector subtraction of the local velocity
of the blade U from the absolute velocity of the flow , as shown in
Figure 1.2(c).

The blade has velocity only in the tangential direction, and

therefore the components of the relative velocity can be written as
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• The relative flow angle is the angle between the relative flow direction
and the meridional direction:

• By combining Eqs. (1.3), (1.4), and (1.5) a relationship between the

relative and absolute flow angles can be found:
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Sign convention
Equations 1.4 and 1.6 suggest that negative values of flow angles and
velocities are possible.
Use positive values for tangential velocities that are in the direction of
rotation and negative values for tangential velocities that are opposite to the
direction of rotation.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Velocity diagrams for an axial flow compressor stage

Figure 1.3 Velocity triangles for an axial compressor

stage.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
The fundamental laws
Basic physical laws of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics suitable for the study of
turbomachines.
The are:
i. the continuity of flow equation;
ii. the first law of thermodynamics and the steady flow energy equation;
iii. the momentum equation;
iv. the second law of thermodynamics.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
The equation of continuity
The elementary rate of mass flow is

Figure 1.4 Flow across an element of

area.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
The first law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that, if a system is taken through a complete cycle
during which heat is supplied and work is done, then

During a change from state 1 to state 2, there is a change in the energy within the system:
 Introduction: Basic Principles
where
For an infinitesimal change of state,

The steady flow energy equation

 Introduction: Basic Principles
For convenience, specific enthalpy, , and the kinetic energy, , are combined and the result is
called the stagnation enthalpy:

The contribution of the term in Eq. (1.11) is small and can usually be ignored. In this case,
Eq. (1.11) can be written as
 Introduction: Basic Principles
For work producing machines (turbines) , so that

For work absorbing machines (compressors) , so that

Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.5 Control volume showing sign convention for heat and work
transfers.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• The momentum equation
One of the most fundamental and valuable principles in mechanics is Newton’s second law of
motion.
Applications of the momentum equation: the force exerted upon a blade in a compressor or
turbine cascade caused by the deflection or acceleration of fluid passing the blades.

Equation (1.16b) is the one-dimensional form of the steady flow momentum equation.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Moment of momentum

Figure 1.6 Control volume for

a generalized turbomachine.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
The Euler work equation
For a pump or compressor rotor running at angular velocity Ω, the rate at which the rotor does work on the fluid is

For a turbine the fluid does work on the rotor and the sign for work is then reversed. Thus, the specific work is
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Note that, for any adiabatic turbomachine (turbine or compressor), applying the steady flow
energy equation, Eq. (1.13), gives

Alternatively, this can be written as

Equations (1.19a) and (1.19b) are the general forms of the Euler work equation.
Introduction: Basic Principles

End of Part I
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• The Euler work equation
For a pump or compressor rotor running at angular velocity Ω, the rate at which the rotor does work
on the fluid is
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• Small stage efficiency for a perfect gas
The polytropic efficiency for the small stage is

since for an isentropic process . Substituting into Eq. (1.48) and using gives
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Now the isentropic efficiency for the whole compression process is

For the ideal compression process put in Eq. (1.50) and so obtain

which is equivalent to Eq. (1.37). Substituting Eqs. (1.50) and (1.52) into Eq. (1.51) results in the expression
 Introduction: Basic Principles

Figure 1.13 Relationship

between isentropic
(overall) efficiency,
pressure ratio, and small
stage (polytropic)
efficiency for a
compressor ().
 Introduction: Basic Principles
• Turbine polytropic efficiency
For the turbine the appropriate expressions for an expansion, from a state 1 to a state 2, are

The most notable feature of these results is that, in contrast with a compression process, for
an expansion, isentropic efficiency exceeds small stage efficiency.
 Introduction: Basic Principles

• In normal steam turbine practice the value of RH is usually between 1.03 and 1.08. Now,
since the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is

then

which establishes the connection between polytropic efficiency, reheat factor and turbine
isentropic efficiency.
 Introduction: Basic Principles
Reheat factor
Figure 1.14 Turbine
isentropic efficiency against
pressure ratio for various
polytropic efficiencies ().
RIGHT

Figure 1.15 Mollier diagram

showing expansion process
through a turbine split up into
a number of small stages.
LEFT