Chapter 4

Graphing
and
Optimization

Section 2
Second Derivative
and
Graphs

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 Concavity of Graphs
The graphs shown below are both increasing.
They differ in their concavity.

The phrase concave upward is used to describe the shape of

the graph on the left.
The phrase concave downward is used to describe the shape
of the graph on the right.

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 Concavity of Graphs
For this concave up graph, the slope of the tangent at a is less
than the slope of the tangent at b whenever a < b.
The slope of the tangent line is increasing and the graph is
above each tangent line.

a b

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 Concavity of Graphs
For this concave down graph, the slope of the tangent at a is
greater than the slope of the tangent at b whenever a < b.
The slope of the tangent line is decreasing and the graph is
below each tangent line.

a b

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 Definition-Concavity
The graph of a function f is concave upward on the
interval (a, b) if f ´(x) is increasing on (a, b).

The graph of a function f is concave downward on the

interval (a, b) if f ´(x) is decreasing on (a, b).

Geometrically, the graph is concave upward on (a, b) if it lies

above its tangent lines in (a, b).

The graph is concave downward on (a, b) if it lies below its

tangent lines in (a, b).

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 Notation-Second Derivative

For y  f ( x), the second derivative of f , provided that it exists, is

d
f ( x)  f ( x).
dx
Other notations for f ( x) are
d2y
2
and y.
dx

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 6
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Example 1 Second Derivative
Function
f ( x)  x3

First Derivative
f ´(x) = 3x2

Second Derivative
d 2
f ( x)  3x  6 x
dx

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 Example 1 Second Derivative
continued
Graph the function
f ( x)  x3

A screen shot of a calculator

graph for the function is
shown.
It appears that the concavity
of the graph changes at x = 0.
In the next slide, we use the
second derivative to analyze
the concavity of f(x).

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 Example 1 Second Derivative
continued
Use the second derivative to analyze concavity for the
function
f ( x)  x3
The first derivative is f ( x)  3 x 2

The second derivative is f ( x)  6 x

When x < 0, f ″(x) < 0, f ´(x) is decreasing, and the graph

is concave downward.

When x > 0, f ″(x) > 0, f ´(x) is increasing, and the graph

is concave upward.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 9
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Example 2 Second Derivative
Function
1
g ( x)  x  x 3 3

First Derivative
1  23 1
g ( x)  x 
3 3 3 x2

Second Derivative
d 1 23 2  53 2
g ( x)  x  x 
dx 3 9 9 3 x5

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 Concavity-Summary

For the interval (a, b), if f ″(x) > 0, then f is concave

upward, and if f ″(x) < 0, then f is concave downward.
f ″(x) f ´(x) Graph of y = f(x) Examples
+ Increasing Concave upward

– Decreasing Concave Downward

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 Example 3 Concavity of Graphs
Determine the intervals on which the graph of the function is
concave upward and the intervals on which the graph of the
function is concave downward.
Sketch a graph of the function.
f(x) = ex

Solution f ´(x) = ex and f ″(x) = ex

Since f ″(x) > 0 on (–∞, ∞), it follows
that f(x) is concave upward on (–∞, ∞).
The graph of f(x) = ex is shown and
confirms that the function is concave
upward everywhere.

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 Example 3 Concavity of Graphs
Determine the intervals on which the graph of the function is
concave upward and the intervals on which the graph of the
function is concave downward.
Sketch a graph of the function.
h(x) = ln x
1 1
Solution h( x)  
and h ( x)   2
x x
The domain of h(x) = ln x is (0, ∞)
and h ″(x) < 0 on this interval.
The graph of ln x is concave
downward on (0, ∞).
The graph is shown and confirms
the concavity result.

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 Inflection Points

An inflection point is a point on the graph of a function

where the function is continuous and the concavity changes
(upward to downward or downward to upward).

Changes in concavity at a point require that f ″(x) change sign

at the point.

In Section 2.2, we saw that partition numbers identify the

points where a function can change sign.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 14
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 Theorem 1 Inflection Points

If (c, f(c)) is an inflection point of f, then c is a partition

number for f ″.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 15
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 Procedure Testing for Inflection
Points

Step 1 Find all partition numbers c of f ″ such that f is

continuous at c.

Step 2 For each partition number, c, construct a sign chart

of f ″ near x = c.

Step 3 If the sign chart of f ″ changes sign at c, then

(c, f(c)) is an inflection point of f.
If the sign chart of f ″ does not changes sign at c, then there
is no inflection point at x = c.

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 Example 4 Locating Inflection
Points
Find the inflection points of f(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 – 72x – 30.
Solution Construct a sign chart for f ″(x).
f ´(x) = 12x2 + 12x – 72
f ″(x) = 24x + 12 = 24(x + ½)
The sign chart for f ″(x) (partition number x = –1/2) is

(–∞, –1/2) (–1/2, ∞)

–––– ++++
Concave Concave
downward upward

The graph of f has an inflection point at x = –1/2.

The point of inflection is (–1/2, 7).

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 17
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 Example 4 Locating Inflection
Points continued
We found that f(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 – 72x – 30 has a point of
inflection at (–1/2, 7).
The graph of the function is shown with the inflection point
marked on the graph.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 18
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
The graph of the derivative of a function f is shown.
Use this derivative graph to discuss the graph of f.
Sketch a possible graph of f.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 19
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
f ´(x) is positive and decreasing on
(–∞, –1).
f(x) is increasing and concave
downward on (–∞, –1).

f ´(x) has a local minimum at x = –1.

f(x) has an inflection point at x = –1.

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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
f ´(x) is positive and increasing on
(–1, 1).
It follows that f(x) is increasing and
concave upward on (–1, 1).

f ´(x) has a local maximum at x = 1.

f(x) has an inflection point at x = 1.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 21
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
f ´(x) is positive and decreasing on (1, 2).
f(x) is increasing and concave downward
on (1, 2).

f ´(x) is negative and decreasing on (2,

∞).
f(x) is decreasing and concave downward
on (2, ∞).
f ´(x) = 0 at x = 2.
f is concave downward on each side near
x = 2, f (x) has a local maximum at x = 2.
Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 22
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
Summary information about f with a sketch of f.
f ´(x) is positive and decreasing on (–∞, –1).
f(x) is increasing and concave downward on (–∞, –1).

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 23
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
f ´(x) has a local minimum at x = –1.
f(x) has an inflection point at x = –1.
f ´(x) is positive and increasing on (–1, 1).
f(x) is increasing and concave upward on (–1, 1).

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 24
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
f ´(x) has a local maximum at x = 1.
f(x) has an inflection point at x = 1.
f ´(x) is positive and decreasing on (1, 2).
f(x) is increasing and concave downward on (1, 2).

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 25
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 Example 5 Analyzing a Graph
continued
f ´(x) is negative and decreasing on (2, ∞).
f(x) is decreasing and concave downward on (2, ∞).
f ´(x) = 0 at x = 2.
f (x) has a local maximum at x = 2.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 26
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 Curve Sketching

Graphing technology simplifies the process of graphing

functions.
However, key points on a plot may be difficult to identify.
Analysis of a function and its derivatives and plotting
intercepts, local extrema, and inflection points can give a
good representation of the graph of the function.
This graphing process is called curve sketching.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 27
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 Procedure Graphing Strategy

 Step 1 Analyze f(x).

 Find the domain and the intercepts.
 The x intercepts are the solutions to f(x) = 0.
 The y intercept is f(0).

 Step 2 Analyze f ´(x).

 Find the partition numbers for f ´and the critical
numbers for f.
 Construct a sign chart for f ´(x), and determine the
intervals on which f is increasing and decreasing.
 Find the local maxima and minima of f.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 28
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 Procedure Graphing Strategy
continued
 Step 3 Analyze f ″(x).
 Find the partition numbers for f ″(x).
 Construct a sign chart for f ″(x), and determine
the intervals on which f is concave upward and
concave downward, and find the inflection points
of f.

 Step 4 Sketch the graph of f.

 Locate intercepts, local maxima and minima, and
inflection points.
 Sketch the graph based on what was found in
Steps 1–3.
 Plot additional points as needed and complete the
sketch.
Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 29
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 Example 6 Use the Graphing
Strategy
Follow the graphing strategy and analyze the function
f(x) = x3 – 3x2
Solution Step 1 Analyze f(x).
The domain of this polynomial function is (–∞, ∞).
x intercept: Solve f(x) = 0.
x3 – 3x2 = 0
x2(x – 3) = 0
x = 0, 3
y intercept: f(0) = 0

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 30
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 Example 6 Use the Graphing
Strategy continued
Follow the graphing strategy and analyze the function
f(x) = x3 – 3x2
Solution Step 2 Analyze f ´(x)
f ´(x) = 3x2 – 6x = 3x(x – 2)
Partition numbers for f ´are 0 and 2.
Critical numbers for f(x) are 0 and 2.
Sign chart for f ´(x)
(–∞, 0) (0, 2) (2, ∞)
f ´(x) ++++ 0 –––– 0 ++++
f(x) Increasing 1 Decreasing 2 Increasing
f ´(x) f ´(–1) = 9 f ´(1) = –3 f ´(3) = 9
test number (+) (–) (+)

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 31
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 Example 6 Use the Graphing
Strategy continued
Follow the graphing strategy and analyze the function
f(x) = x3 – 3x2
Solution
(–∞, 0) (0, 2) (2, ∞)
f ´(x) ++++ 0 –––– 0 ++++
f(x) Increasing 0 Decreasing 2 Increasing
f ´(x) f ´(–1) = 9 f ´(1) = –3 f ´(3) = 9
test number (+) (–) (+)

f(x) is increasing on (–∞, 0), decreasing on (0, 2), and

increasing on (2, ∞).
Local maximum at x = 0; Local maximum is f(0) = 0.
Local minimum at x = 2; Local minimum f(2) = –4.
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 Example 6 Use the Graphing
Strategy continued
Follow the graphing strategy and analyze the function
f(x) = x3 – 3x2
Solution Step 3 Analyze f ″(x)
f ″(x) = 6x – 6 = 6(x – 1)
Partition number for f ″ is 1.
Sign chart for f ″(x)
(–∞, 1) (1, ∞)
f ″(x) –––– 0 ++++
f(x) Concave down 1 Concave up
f ″(x) f ″(–1) = –12 f ″(2) = 6
test number (–) (+)

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 Example 6 Use the Graphing
Strategy continued
Follow the graphing strategy and analyze the function
f(x) = x3 – 3x2
Solution Sign chart for f ″(x)
(–∞, 1) (1, ∞)
f ″(x) –––– 0 ++++
f(x) Concave down 1 Concave up
f ″(x) f ″(–1) = –12 f ″(2) = 6
test number (–) (+)

The graph of f is concave down on (–∞, 1).

The graph of f is concave up on (1, ∞).
There is an inflection point at x = 1; f(1) = –2.

Barnett, Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and Social Sciences, 14e 34
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 Example 6 Use the Graphing
Strategy continued
f(x) = x3 – 3x2
Solution Step 4 Sketch the graph of f
Key points: (0, 0) local maximum, zero, and y intercept
(1, –2) point of inflection
(2, –4) (local minimum)
(3, 0) function zero
Concave downward on (–∞, 1)
Concave upward on (1, ∞)

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