School of Aerospace &

Automotive Engineering

Mechanics of Machinery
Chapter 1. Introduction
Basic definitions; Motions; Coordinate
systems; Degree of freedom

Prepared By
Dr.Rajesh Ravi B.E.,M.E.,Ph.D
Assistant Professor ,
School of Aerospace &Automotive Engg,
Universite Internationale de Rabat-11100.
 Mechanisms and
machines

If a number of bodies are assembled in such a way that

the motion of one cause constrained and predictable
motion to the others, it is known as a mechanism.
A mechanism transmits and modifies a motion.

A machine is a mechanism or a combination of

mechanisms which, apart from imparting definite motions
to the parts, also transmits and modifies the available
mechanical energy into some kind of desired work.
Thus, a mechanism is a fundamental unit, and one has to
start with its study.
 Basic definitions
Mechanism is a Device to transfer a given input to the desired
output.

-Slider crank
-Four bar mechanisms

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 Basic definitions
 Mechanism - a collection of components to transform motion

Rocker

Rod

Guide (ground)

Cam Valve

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• The subject Theory of Machines (ToM) may be defined as that branch of
Engineering-science, which deals with the study of relative motion
between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them.

• The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer in designing

the various parts of a machine.
• In a reciprocating engine, the displacement of the piston depends upon the lengths of the
connecting rod and the crank.

• It is independent of the bearing strength of the parts or whether they are able to withstand
the forces or not.

• Thus, for the study of motions, it is immaterial if a machine part is made of mild steel, cast
iron or wood.

• Also, it is not necessary to know the actual shape and area of the cross section of the part.

• Thus, the study of motions of different parts of a mechanism, the study of forces is not
necessary and can be neglected.

• The study of mechanisms, therefore, divided into the following disciplines:

Kinematics:
It deals with the relative motions of different parts of a mechanism without taking
into consideration the forces producing the motions.
• Thus, it is the study, from a geometric point of view, to know the displacement,
velocity and acceleration of a parts of a mechanism.
Dynamics:
It involves the calculations of forces impressed upon different parts of a
mechanism.
• The forces can be either static or dynamic.
• Dynamics is further subdivided into kinetics and statics.
Kinetics is the study of forces when the body is in motion whereas statics deals
with forces when the body is stationary.
 The slider- crank mechanism show above in Fig1.

• converts the reciprocating motion of the slider into the rotary motion of the crank
or vice- versa.

• However, when it is used as an automobile engine by adding the valve mechanism,

etc., it become a machine which converts the available energy (force in the piston)
into desired energy (torque of the crank- shaft).

• The torque used to move the vehicle.

• Reciprocating pumps, reciprocating compressors and steam engines are other

examples.
 Mechanism
• When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type
of work.

• When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as
Mechanism. It may be used for transmitting or transforming motion. e.g. engine
indicators, typewriter etc.

• A mechanism with four links is known as simple mechanism, and the mechanism
with more than four links is known as compound mechanism.

1. Fixed link 2. Crank 3.connecting rod 4. Piston

 Machine

• The parts of a machine move relative to one another.

• A machine transforms the available energy into some useful work.
• The links of a machine may transmit both power and motion.
• Example: Machine: lathe, drilling machine
 Structure
• The members of a structure do not move relative to one another.
• Structure no energy is transformed into useful work.
• The members of a structure transmit forces only.
• Structure: Railway Bridge, roof truss, machine frames
 Kinematic link
• Each part of the machine, which moves relative to some other part, is known
as kinematic link or element.
• A link may consist of several parts.
• For example, in a reciprocating steam engine piston , piston rod and cross head
constitute of one link;
• connecting rod with big and small end bearings constitute a second link;
• crank and crank shaft and flywheel a third link
• and the cylinder, engine frame and main bearings a fourth link.
 Kinematic link

Kinematic link

• Kinematic link is a single resistant body/ combination of

resistant bodies having relative motion with another resistant
body/combination resistant body.

• Any body (normally rigid) which has motion relative to another

Types
• Binary link
• Ternary link
• Quaternary link
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• Link - rigid body between joints
• Binary Link - has two joints only
• Ternary Link - has three joints
• Quaternary Link - has four joints

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 Kinematic LINK

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 Types of Links

• Rigid link: A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while

transmitting motion. Strictly speaking, rigid links do not exist. However, as the

deformation of a connecting rod, crank etc. of a reciprocating steam engine is

not appreciable; they can be considered as rigid links.

• Flexible link: A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to

affect the transmission of motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains and wires

are flexible links and transmit tensile forces only.

• Fluid link: A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a receptacle

and the motion is transmitted through the fluid by pressure or compression

only, as in the case of hydraulic presses, jacks and brakes.

 Kinematic pair
• Kinematic pair is a combination of two links kept in permanent contact,
permitting particular kinds of relative motion between them.
a. According to the type of relative motion between the elements.

• Sliding pair: When the two elements of a pair are

connected in such a way that one can only slide relative to
the other, the pair is known as a sliding pair. The piston
and cylinder ram and its guides in shaper are the examples
of a sliding pair.
• A little consideration will show that a sliding pair has a
completely constrained motion.
• Turning pair: When the two elements of a pair are
connected in such a way that one can only turn or revolve
about a fixed axis of another link, the pair is known as
turning pair. A shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a
circular hole.
• A turning pair also has a completely constrained
motion.

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Rolling pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in
such a way that one roll over another fixed link, the pair is
known as rolling pair. Ball and roller bearings are examples of
rolling pair.
Screw pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected in
such a way that one element can turn about the other by screw
threads, the pair is known as screw pair. The lead screw of a
lathe with nut, and bolt with a nut are examples of a screw pair.
Spherical pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected
in such a way that one element (with spherical shape) turns or
swivels about the other fixed element, the pair formed is called
a spherical pair.
The ball and socket joint, attachment of a car mirror, pen stand
etc., are the examples of a spherical pair. 04/07/2023
20
b. According to the degree of freedom

• 1-dof
• 2-dof
• 3-dof
• 4-dof
• 5-dof
• 6 dof

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 According to the type of contact between the elements

• Lower pair: When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact when
relative motion takes place and the surface of one element slides over the
surface of the other, the pair formed is known as lower pair.

• It will be seen that sliding pairs, turning pairs and screw pairs form lower
pairs.
• Higher pair: When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact when

relative motion takes place and the motion between the two elements is partly

turning and partly sliding, then the pair is known as higher pair.

• Pair of friction discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and roller

bearings and cam and follower is the examples of higher pairs.

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 Types of constrained motion
Completely constrained motion

• When the motion between a pair is limited to a definite direction irrespective of the
direction of force applied, then the motion is said to be a completely constrained motion.
For example, the piston and cylinder (in a steam engine) form a pair and the motion of
the piston is limited to a definite direction (i.e. it will only reciprocate) relative to the
cylinder irrespective of the direction of motion of the crank, as shown in Fig.1a and fig.1b.
 Incompletely constrained motion
• When the motion between a pair can take place in more than one direction, then
the motion is called an incompletely constrained motion.

• The change in the direction of impressed force may alter the direction of relative
motion between the pair.

• A circular bar or shaft in a circular hole, as shown in Fig.1, is an example of an

incompletely constrained motion as it may either rotate or slide in a hole. These
both motions have no relationship with the other.
Successfully Constrained Motion
 KINEMATIC CHAIN

• Assembly or combination of link and pairs to produce required/ specified

output motion or for given input motions.

• Group of links either joined together or arranged in a manner that permits

them to move relative to one another.

• (link 1) frame
• (link 2) crank
• (link 3) coupler
• (link 4) rocker

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 GRASHOF’S LAW FOR A FOUR-BAR MECHANISM

In a planar 4- bar kinematic chain with revolute pair, if the sum of the
link lengths of shortest and longest link is less than or equal to the sum
of the other two link lengths
  s + l  p + q  

 The four-bar chain that satisfies the Grashof’s law is known as Grashof’s chain.

 If this inequality is not satisfied, no link will make a complete rotation relative to other
three links. The four-bar chain that does not satisfy the Grashof’s law is known as non-
Grashof chain.
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 MOTION
Types of motions
Mechanisms require some type of motion (movements). There are four
types of motion:

1. Linear
2. Oscillating
3. Rotary
4. Reciprocating

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 Motion
Before we look at Mechanisms it is important to understand the different types of
motion that are generated.

LINEAR MOTION
This is motion is a straight line in a single direction. It is represented by an arrow as
shown below

RECIPROCATING MOTION
This is motion in a straight line but moving backwards and forwards. It is
represented by an arrow as shown below.
ROTARY MOTION
This is motion in a circular direction. It is represented by an arrow as shown below.

OSCILLATING MOTION
This is motion backwards and forwards in a circular arc like a clock pendulum. It is
represented by an arrow as shown below.
1. Linear
2. Oscillating

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 3. Rotary
4. Reciprocating

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Mechanisms are activated by forces. The different types of forces
are:
Statics: - no movement or motion and it is a still force
Dynamics: - moving forces
Compression: - squashing force
Tension: - pulling force
Bending:-compression and tension
Torsion: - turning or twisting
Shear:-cutting force
Equilibrium: - all forces are balanced
 A.W. Klien’s Criterion of Constraint to Determine Nature of Chain

 A.W. Klien’s criterion of constraint is used to determine the nature of chain, i.e.,
whether the chain is a locked chain (i.e., structure) or a constrained chain or an
unconstrained chain.

 The required equation/condition to form a kinematic chain are:

  h 3
j+ = n –2
where 2 2
n= Number of links,
p = Number of pairs,
j = Number of binary joints, and
h = Number of higher pairs.

 According to A.W. Klien’s criterion of constraint, in equation

(i) If L.H.S > R.H.S., then the given chain is called locked chain or structure.
(ii) If L.H.S. = R.H.S., then the given chain is called constrained kinematic chain.
(iii)If L.H.S. < R.H.S., then the given chain is called unconstrained kinematic chain.
 1. Problem
Show that a combination of three links cannot form a kinematic chain.
 Solution: Consider an assemblage of three links AB, BC and CA which are pin jointed at A, B
and C, as shown in Fig
 Coordinate systems
• The position of particle P at any time t can be described by specifying

• Its rectangular coordinates x, y, z,

• Its cylindrical coordinates r, θ, z, or

• Its spherical coordinates R, θ, ϕ.

• The motion of P can also be described by measurements along the tangent t and

normal n to the curve. These last two measurements are called path variables.

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• The motion of particles (or rigid bodies) can be described by using
coordinates measured from fixed reference axes (absolute-motion
analysis) or by using coordinates measured from moving reference
axes (relative-motion analysis).

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 Degree of freedom or mobility of a mechanism

• It is the number of independent

coordinates required to describe the
position of a body.

• Rigid body in a plane has three DOF: x, y, z

• Rigid body in 3D-space has 6DOF 3translations and 3 rotations, three

lengths (x, y, z), plus three angles (θ, ϕ, β)

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 Degrees of freedom/mobility of a
mechanism
It is the number of inputs (number of independent coordinates)
required to describe the configuration or position of all the links of the
mechanism, with respect to the fixed link at any given instant.

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 MOBILITY OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM

• An important property in mechanism analysis is the number of degrees of freedom of

the linkage. The degree of freedom is the number of independent inputs required to

precisely position all links of the mechanism with respect to the ground.

• It can also be defined as the number of actuators needed to operate the mechanism. A

mechanism actuator could be manually moving one link to another position, connecting

a motor to the shaft of one link, or pushing a piston of a hydraulic cylinder.

• The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is also called the mobility, and it is

given the symbol M.

• When the configuration of a mechanism is completely defined by positioning one link,

that system has one degree of freedom.

• Most commercially produced mechanisms have one degree of freedom.

• In constrict, robotic arms can have three, or more, degrees of freedom.

 GRUBLER’S CRITERION

Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h.

Where,

• F = Degrees of freedom

• n = Number of links in the mechanism.

• l = Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by counting the number of joints. If more
than two links are joined together at any point, then, one additional lower pair is to be
considered for every additional link.

• h = Number of higher pairs

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Examples - DOF

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 4, l = 4 & h = 0.
• F = 3(4-1)-2(4) = 1
• I.e., one input to any one link will
result in definite motion of all the
links.

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Examples - DOF

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 5, l = 5 and h = 0.
• F = 3(5-1)-2(5) = 2
• I.e., two inputs to any two links are
required to yield definite motions in all
the links.

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Examples - DOF
• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 6, l = 7 and h = 0.
• F = 3(6-1)-2(7) = 1
• I.e., one input to any one link will result in
definite motion of all the links.

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Examples - DOF

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 6, l = 7 (at the intersection of 2,
3 and 4, two lower pairs are to be
considered) and h = 0.
• F = 3(6-1)-2(7) = 1

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Examples - DOF

• F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
• Here, n = 11, l = 15 (two lower
pairs at the intersection of 3, 4, 6;
2, 4, 5; 5, 7, 8; 8, 10, 11) and h =
0.
• F = 3(11-1)-2(15) = 0

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Examples - DOF

(a) (b) (c)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here, n = 4, l = 5 and h = 0. Here, n = 3, l = 2 and h = 1. Here, n = 3, l = 2 and h = 1.
F = 3(4-1)-2(5) = -1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1
I.e., it is a structure

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PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

F=1 F=1

F=1
F=1
 DOF=1
F=2
F=0

DOF=0
F=-1 F=1
 F=1 F=1

F=1 F=1
F=-1

2
1 F=3
F=0
F=0

F=1 F=1
F=2 F=1

F=2
4 F=1
3
 F=3

2
1

3 4
F=1 F=0
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Figure 1 shows a shear that is used to cut and trim electronic circuit board laminates.
Draw a kinematic diagram.

Fig.1 kinematic diagram for example problem 5

Fig.1 shear press for example Fig.1 kinematic diagram for example problem 5
problem 5
1. Identify the Frame
The first step in constructing a kinematic diagram is to decide the part that will be designated
as the frame. The motion of all other links will be determined relative to the frame. In some
cases, its selection is obvious as the frame is firmly attached to the ground.
In this problem, the large base that is bolted to the table is designated as the frame. The motion
of all other links is determined relative to the base. The base is numbered as link 1.
2. Identify All Other Links
Careful observation reveals three other moving parts:
Link 2: Handle
Link 3: Cutting blade
Link 4: Bar that connects the cutter with the handle
3. Identify the Joints
Pin joints are used to connect link 1 to 2, link 2 to 3, and link 3 to 4. These joints are lettered A
through C. In addition, the cutter slides up and down, along the base. This sliding joint connects
link 4 to 1, and is lettered D.
4. Identify Any Points of Interest
Finally, the motion of the end of the handle is desired. This is designated as point of interest X.
5. Draw the Kinematic Diagram
The kinematic diagram is given in Fig.1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=918IG7bt4NU&t=534s
Kinematic Diagram of a Wiper Mechanism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mDTjTt-oViQ&t=1654s
Thank you all