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Debre Birhan University

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Materials II
Introduction to Engineering Materials

Lecture 2- Cast Iron

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 Introduction
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There are, it is said, more than 50,000 materials are available to the
engineer.
In designing a structure or device, how is the engineer to choose from

this vast menu the material which best suits the purpose?
Mistakes can cause disasters-Remedy, choosing the appropriate material

for the design

Documentary-
During World War II, one class of welded merchant ship suffered heavy

losses, not by enemy attack, but by breaking in half at sea: the fracture
toughness of the steel- and, particularly, of the welds was too low.

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 Metal Alloys
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Tr

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 The purpose of alloying elements
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 To increase hardenability
 To increase the resistance to corrosion and oxidation
 To improve high temperature properties
 To increase resistance to abrasion
 To enhance the strength

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 Disadvantages of alloying
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 Special handling
 Temper brittleness in certain grades
 Cost

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 Ferrous Alloys
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Iron is a prime constituent than any other metal type

It is widely used in the world as a result of :

Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities

with in the earth crust

Metallic Iron and steel alloys are produced using relatively

economical extraction , refining , alloying and other

fabrication technique
Physical properties of ferrous alloys are extremely versatile

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 Ferrous Alloys
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The properties of all alloys are determined by the kinds and amounts
of phases
Ferrous alloys contains of two or more phases known as ferrite,

austenite, carbides and graphite.

The alloying element in ferrous metals affect the stability of this

phases
The alloying element also affect the properties of phases in which

each elements exist

Thus, alloying elements achieve control of the properties of ferrous

alloys

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 Limitation of ferrous alloys
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 Relatively high density

 Relatively low conductivity
 Poor corrosion resistance

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 Cast iron-Introduction
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The exact date at which people discovered the technique of smelting iron ore to
produce usable metal is not known.
The alloys produced by early iron workers, and, indeed, all the iron alloys made

until about the 14th century AD, would be classified today as wrought iron.
They were made by heating a mass of iron ore and charcoal in a forge or furnace

having a forced draft.

Iron workers learned to make steel by heating wrought iron and charcoal in clay

boxes for a period of several days.

By this process the iron absorbed enough carbon from charcoal to become a true

steel.
After the 14th century the furnaces used in smelting were increased in size.

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 Contd.
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 The product of these furnaces was pig iron, an alloy that melts at a lower
temperature than steel or wrought iron.
 Pig iron (so called because it was usually cast in short,
round ingots known as pigs) was then further refined to
make steel.
 Modern steelmaking employs blast furnaces that are merely refinements of the
furnaces used by the old iron workers.

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 Production Methods
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Iron Ores
Iron is extracted from iron ores found in the earth crust.
Iron ores are relatively concentrated deposits and the extracting process

is relatively cheap.
The economic advantage of iron extraction together with excellent

combination of the products’ properties makes them the most widely

used metals.
Iron and steel products account more than 60% of the metal use.

Iron ores may presents in forms of oxides, sulphides, or carbonate.

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 Contd.
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Ore preparation
Prior to entering the extraction process, the iron ores are prepared by the following processes to increase the iron content:
Mechanically remove impurities, such as rock, sand and stone

Crush into smaller sizes

Separate by magnetic separator or flotation

Chemically change non-oxide ores to a form of oxide ores

After separated from impurities, oxide-typed ores are usually mixed with clay and formed into pallets, which are then

hardened by sintering.
Pallet must be heavy and strong enough not to be blown away or break by blasting air

These processes together are sometimes called palletizing.

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 Contd.
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a) Crushing;
b) Magnetic separation;
c) Balling to pallets sized
13 – 19 mm in diameter;
d) Sintering at a temperature
of 1290 °C.

A typical example of ore preparation process called palletizing

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 Iron Smelting

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Iron is usually smelted (extraction of metal from ore) in a blast furnace, which is a
shaft-typed furnace with a height of 40m or more and diameter of about 9 to 11m.
Production takes place on a continuous basis; once the furnace is running it is usually

not economical to shut down so frequently.

blast furnace is the mainstream method of extracting iron

It is also possible to extract iron by other smelting methods

i. Direct reduction
ii) Electric smelting
iii) Reducing by hydrogen

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 1. Blast Furnace

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In the blast furnace the iron ore is extracted into the molten pig iron.
blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce

metals, generally iron.

To produce iron, a charge of ore, coke, and limestone are dropped into the top of a

blast furnace.
A blast furnace is a refractory-lined chamber in which hot gases are forced into

the lower part of the chamber at high rates to accomplish combustion and
reduction of the iron.
The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the

bottom, and flue gases exiting from the top of the furnace.
It can produce 2,000 to 10,000 tones of iron per day

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 Contd.
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Iron Ores and Other Raw Materials

principal ores used
hematite (Fe2O3)

magnetite (Fe3O4)

siderite (FeCO3)

limonite(Fe2O3- xH2O,inwhich x istypicallyaround1.5)

Other raw materials needed to reduce iron from the ores are

Coke- serves two functions

 supplies heat for the chemical reactions

It produces carbon monoxide(CO) to reduce the iron ore

Limestone- is a rock containing high proportions of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3)

used in the process as a flux to react with and remove impurities in the molten iron as slag

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 Contd.
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Schematic diagram indicating details of the blast furnace operation

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 Contd.
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1. Throat: the burden (Load) surface at the top

of the blast furnace.
2. Shaft: where the ores are heated and
reduction reactions start
3. Belly parallel: the short vertical section
4. Bosh: where the ore reduction completes, and
the ores are melting
down.
5. Hearth: where the molten materials (slag and
hot metal) are collected and tapped via the tap-
holes.

Tuyeres- to inject the hot blast (Air) into the furnace

from the hot stoves through the hot-blast main
Figure: Configuration / and bustle pipes.
Component details of a blast furnace Tap holes-for discharging hot metal and cinder
notches for discharging as slag
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 Contd.
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 Contd.
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The air used to supply the blast in a blast furnace is preheated to temperatures between approximately
540°c and 870° C
The heating is performed in stoves, cylinders containing networks of firebrick.

The bricks in the stoves are heated for several hours by burning blast-furnace gas, the waste gases from the

top of the furnace.

Then the flame is turned off and the air for the blast is blown through the stove.

The weight of air used in the operation of a blast furnace exceeds the total weight of the other raw

materials employed.
An important development in blast furnace technology, the pressurizing of furnaces, by “throttling” the

flow of gas from the furnace vents, the pressure within the furnace may be built up to 1.7atm or more.
The pressurizing technique makes possible better combustion of the coke and higher output of pig iron.

The output of many blast furnaces can be increased 25 percent by pressurizing.

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 Main reaction in blast furnace
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 Burning of the coke is accomplished by the hot gases (CO, H2, CO2,
H2O, N2, O2, and fuels) as they pass upward through the layers of charge
material.
 Fe2O3+CO2 FeO+CO2
 Carbon dioxide reacts with coke to form more carbon monoxide
 CO2+C(coke) 2CO
 final reduction of FeO to iron
 FeO + CO Fe + CO2
 molten iron drips downward, collecting at the base of the blast furnace.
 This is periodically tapped into hot iron ladle cars for transfer to subsequent steel
making operations.
 First the limestone is reduced to lime (CaO) by heating, as follows
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
 lime combines with impurities such as silica (SiO2), sulfur (S), and alumina (Al2O3)
in reactions that produce a molten slag that floats on top of the iron.
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 2. Direct Reduction Iron Smelting

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The direct reduction process can be performed in a variety of furnaces

such as rotary kiln and fluidized bed.
The use of a high grade ore (e.g. Fe2O3) is necessary.

Heat and carbon monoxide necessary for extracting iron, heat is provided

by firing natural gas, hydro carbon, or low cost coke breeze or lignite.
Chemical Reaction:

The process is less energy efficient than the blast furnace process.
Iron produced from this process is in forms of sponge or pallet, and

having reasonable purity.

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 Contd.
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 dried, fine iron ore is charged into a series of

fluidized-bed furnaces together with fluxes
such as limestone or dolomite.
 iron-ore fines pass in a downward direction
through the furnaces where they are heated
and reduced by means of a reducing gas
derived from the gasification of coal
 exiting the final furnace , the DRI fines are
hot compacted to HCI, transferred to a
charging bin
 As coal is gasified a reducing gas is
generated, one comprising mainly CO and
H2
 The export gas from the process can be
used for a variety of industrial applications,
power generation.
Figure: Direct Reduced Iron production method 04/07/2023
using fluidized bed furnace
 3. Electric Iron Smelting
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 In the electric smelting process heat is generated by electricity.

 The process is clean; having low CO2 emission.
 Low grade coke is used as the reducing agent by pre-mixing into
ore.
 Chemical Reaction:

 Iron is produced in a form of molten pig iron.

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 4. Reducing by Hydrogen for Iron Smelting

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 Hydrogen is used as a reducing agent.

 Hydrogen is supplied from the electrolysis of water.
 Chemical Reaction:
Fe2O3 + 3H2 ⇒ 2Fe + 3H2O
 This process releases virtually no pollution, and
produces water as a by-product.

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 Cast irons
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 Ferrous alloys with C contents

above 2.14wt%
 At a temperature higher than
1150ºC,it starts to melt , so they
are easily melted and casted
 Brittle
 Cementite is a metastable
compound ,under some conditions
it can be decomposed to form
ferrite and graphite
Fe3C → 3Fe(α )+ C(grahite )

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 Types of Cast Irons
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1.Gray Iron
Carbon content : 2.5-4wt%
Silicon content :1-3wt%

Graphite exist in the form of flakes

(similar to corn flakes surround by ferrite

Due to this flakes fracture surface takes

place on a gray appearance

It is weak and brittle

 The sharp tips of graphite flakes are responsible for point of stress concentration
when external tensile load is applied
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 Contd.
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Strength and ductility is high under compressive load



capable of damping vibration



Base structures for machines and heavy equipment that are

exposed to vibrations are frequently constructed of this material.
 have a high fluidity at casting temperature

gray cast irons are among the least expensive of all metallic materials

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 Contd.
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2. Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

It is an alloy of gray iron and small
amount of Magnesium and /or
cerium is added to the gray iron
before casting
Graphite is appeared in the form of

nodules or spheres instead of flakes

Spherical graphite are surrounded

by ferrite or pearlite depending

on heat treatment
It is more ductile than gray iron

It is applied in: valves, pump bodies, crank shafts and gears

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 Contd.
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3. White Iron
It is produced by cooling
cast iron of silicon content
less than 1wt% rapidly
A fracture surface of this

alloy has a white appearance,

and thus it is termed white
cast iron.
Due to the presence of cementite,

white iron is extremely hard and

brittle and un-machinable
it is applied in very hard and wear resistance materials

Example: as rollers in rolling mills.

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 Contd.
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4. Malleable iron
Heating white iron at a

temperature 800-900ºC for a prolonged

time in a neutral atmosphere
(to prevent oxidation)
The decomposition of cementite

forming graphite which forms in the

form of clusters or rosettes surrounded
by a ferrite or pearlite matrix
Micro structure is similar to the nodular iron

It contains high strength and appreciable

ductility and malleability

Application; automotive industry , flanges, pipe fittings and valves

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 Contd.
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5. Compacted graphite iron (CGI)

carbon exists as graphite, which formation
is promoted by the presence of silicon.
Silicon content ranges between1.7 and 3.0 wt%,

whereas carbon concentration is normally between

3.1 and 4.0 wt%.
this microstructure is intermediate between that

of gray iron and ductile (nodular) iron and, in fact,

some of the graphite (less than 20%) may be
as nodules
sharp edges (characteristic of graphite

flakes) should be avoided; the presence of this feature leads to a reduction in fracture and fatigue
resistance of the material.
An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to enhancements of both strength

and ductility
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 Contd.
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 Desirable characteristics of CGIs include

 Higher thermal conductivity
 Better resistance to thermal shock
 Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
 important applications
 Diesel engine blocks,
 exhaust manifolds
 gearbox housings
 brake discs for high-speed trains, and flywheels.

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Composition ranges for commercial
cast irons

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Gf G ra p hite fla kes

Gr G ra p hite rosettes
Gn G ra p hite n o d ules
P Pe a rlite

Figure:- Schematic microstructures that result from a variety

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of heat treatments
 Thank You!
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