Gamma (γ)

Rays

S YA H I R M A N S O R , P H D

I P P T, U S M
Lecture Outline
∙ Introduction to Gamma rays: Definition, discoveries and properties
∙ Sources and productions; Tc, F etc.
99m 18

∙ Interaction of Gamma rays to the biological tissues

∙ Acute radiation effects and radiation injuries; HPS, GIS and CVS
∙ Applications in medical and industries

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 Gamma rays: Definition
∙ Gamma radiation is a rigid electromagnetic radiation at the
short-wave edge of the electromagnetic wave spectrum.
∙ Gamma radiation refers to radiation originating in nuclei, and
X-ray radiation arises in the electron shells of atoms.
∙ The rest mass, the electric charge, and the magnetic moment
of the gamma quantum equal to zero.
∙ Gamma radiation is emitted, absorbed, and transported as
separate quanta (packet). The energy of gamma quantum is
related to the frequency ν and the wavelength λ by the relation
E=hν=hc/λ
h = 4.14 × 10−15 eV · s (Planck’s constant)
C = speed of light
λ = wavelength 3
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Gamma rays

β+
a more energetic high
β- electron-positron pair
sca
t
elec tered
tron

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The History

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The History

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The History

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Properties of Gamma Rays
∙ Originated from disintegration of radioactive atomic nuclei and in the
decay of certain subatomic particles
∙ Typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz (10 19
Hz), therefore have
energy > 100 keV
∙ Have wavelength (λ) less than 10 picometer (10 -12
meter), less than
diameter of an atom
∙ High power of penetration
∙ Undeflected in magnetic field as it is chargeless and massless
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Gamma radiation sources
∙ Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from
naturally occurring radioisotopes such as potassium-40 ( 40K), carbon-
14 (14C) and as a secondary radiation from various atmospheric
interactions with cosmic ray particles
∙ Some rare terrestrial natural sources that produce gamma rays that
are not of a nuclear origin, are lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-
ray flashes, which produce high energy emissions from natural high-
energy voltages
∙ Artificial sources of gamma radiation are produced in fission in nuclear
reactors, high energy physics experiments, nuclear explosions and
accidents. 10
 Common Gamma Ray Emitters
Cobalt-60 (60Co)
∙ T = 5.27 years
1/2

∙ γ Energy = 1171, 1333 keV

∙ Production: Nuclear Reactor
∙ Sterilisation of medical equipment in hospitals
∙ Pasteurisation, via irradiation, of certain foodstuffs
∙ Levelling or thickness gauges (i.e., food
packaging, steel mills)
∙ Industrial radiography 11
 Common Gamma Ray Emitters – Cont’d
Caesium-137 (137Cs)
∙ T1/2 = 30.4 years
∙ γ Energy = 662 keV
∙ Production: Nuclear Reactor
∙ Measurement and control of the flow of liquids in
industrial processes
∙ Investigation of subterranean strata (i.e., oil, coal,
gas and other mineralisation)
∙ Measurement of soil moisture-density at construction
sites
∙ Levelling gauges for packaging of food, drugs and
other products 12
 Common Gamma Ray Emitters – Cont’d
Americium-241 (241Am):
∙ T = 433 years
1/2

∙ γ Energy = 59.54 keV

∙ Smoke detectors for households
∙ fluid levelling and density gauges
∙ thickness gauges for thin materials (i.e., paper, foil, glass)
∙ aircraft fuel gauges
∙ when mixed with beryllium, americium-241 produces a
241AmBe neutron source with uses in well logging,
neutron radiography and tomography
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 Common Gamma Ray Emitters – Cont’d
Technetium-99m (99mTc)
∙ T = 6.01 hours
1/2

∙ γ Energy = 141 keV

∙ Production: Generator, Cyclotron
∙ Tc is the most widely used radioactive
99m

isotope for medical diagnostic studies

∙ Different chemical forms are used for brain,
bone, liver, spleen and kidney imaging. It is
also used for blood flow studies
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 Common Gamma Ray Emitters – Cont’d
Flourine-18 (18F)
∙ T = 110 min
1/2

∙ γ Energy = 511 keV

∙ Production: Cyclotron
∙ 18F-Fludeoxyglucose ( F-FDG) is a
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radiopharmaceutical agent used for positron

emission tomography (PET) imaging in
oncology, cardiology, and neurology

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Common Gamma Ray Emitters – Cont’d

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 Production of Technetium-99m (99mTc)
∙ A radionuclide generator consists of a parent daughter
radionuclide pair contained in an apparatus that permits
separation and extraction of the daughter from the parent
∙ The daughter product activity is replenished continuously
by decay of the parent and may be extracted repeatedly.
∙ The decay of Mo-99mTc parent-daughter pair is an example of
99

transient equilibrium

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 Production of Technetium-99m (99mTc)
∙ The parent 99Mo activity in the form of
molybdate ion, MoO42- is bound to an alumina
(Al2O3) column

∙ The daughter 99mTc activity, produced in the

form of 99mTcO-4 (pertechnetate), is not as
strongly bound to alumina and is eluted from
the column with 5 to 25 mL of normal saline
∙ Tc activity builds up again after an elution
99m

and maximum activity is available about 24

hours later
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 Production of Technetium-99m (99mTc)
∙ For instance, 90% of the Tc activity in a generator is
99m

removed during an elution, the activity obtained would be

10% less than predicted
∙ Generator eluted at regular 24-hour intervals
∙ Generator eluted at irregular intervals
∙ Following the transient equilibrium transient
∙ Major concern; equilibrium

1. Moly breakthrough (should be kept low, 0.15 Bq per kBq of

99m
Tc @ 0.15 μCi 99Mo per mCi 99mTc)
2. Aluminum ion - interferes with labeling processes and can
cause clumping of red blood cells and possible micro-
emboli 19
 Production of 18F
General characteristics:
∙ Positive charge is added to the nucleus in most
activation processes. Therefore, the products lie
below the line of stability and tend to decay by EC
or β+ emission
∙ Addition of positive charge to the nucleus changes
its atomic number. Therefore cyclotron-activation
products usually are carrier free.
∙ High photon/particle emission ratios that are
obtained in β+ and EC decay (18F, T1/2 = 110 min)

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 E (MeV) = 4.8×10−3 (H×R×Z)2/A
H; magnetic field strength in tesla
Production of 18F R; radius of the particle orbit in cm
Z; atomic number (charge)
A; mass number of the accelerated particles

fluorodeoxyglucose

H-

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Interaction of Gamma Rays with Biological Tissue

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Interaction of Gamma Rays with Biological Tissue

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Interaction of Gamma Rays with Biological Tissue

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Interaction of Gamma Rays with Biological Tissue

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Interaction of Gamma Rays with Biological Tissue

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Deterministic Effects

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Radiosensitivity of Organs and Tissues

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Stochastic Effects

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Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)
∙ It is a complex of acute injury manifestations that occur after a sufficiently
large portion of a person's body is exposed to a high dose of ionizing
radiation
∙ Combination of clinical syndromes occurring in stages hours to weeks after
exposure as injury to various tissues and organs is expressed

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Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) – Cont’d

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Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) – Cont’d

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Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) – Cont’d
∙ Haematopoietic syndrome (HPS): 3-8 Gy

∙ Gastrointestinal syndrome (GIS): 8-30 Gy

∙ Cerebrovascular syndrome (CVS): 30 Gy and above

Irradiated lung tissue (left) and pulmonary fibrosis (right). e.g., of irradiated tissue
by high dose radiations 35
Haematopoietic syndrome (HPS): 3 Gy
∙ Total body exposure of 3 - 8 Gy leads to expression of the
hematopoietic syndrome

∙ The hematopoietic system manufactures the corpuscular elements of the

blood and is the most radiosensitive vital organ system in humans

∙ Decrease in the number of bone marrow stem cells.

∙ When the cells of the lymphatic system are damaged, the body loses some
of its ability to combat infection

∙ When death occurs, it is a consequence of bone marrow destruction 36

HPS – Cont’d
∙ Symptoms are anorexia, fever, and malaise
∙ Drop in all blood cell counts occurs for several weeks
∙ Primary cause of death is infection and hemorrhage
∙ Survival decreases with increasing dose
∙ Most deaths occur within 1 - 2 months after exposure

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Gastrointestinal syndrome (GIS): 8-30 Gy
∙ Gastrointestinal Syndrome occurred for dose ~ 8 - 30Gy
∙ Symptoms: nausea, vomiting and severe diarrhea
∙ Seen within 3 - 10 days of irradiation
∙ Prolonged diarrhea indicates poor prognosis, with death
occurring in a few days

∙ No human has survived a dose of >10 Gy

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GIS – Cont’d
∙ The small intestine is the most severely affected part of the
gastrointestinal tract

∙ Because epithelial cells function as an essential biologic barrier,

their breakdown leaves the body vulnerable to infection (mostly
from its own intestinal bacteria), dehydration, and severe diarrhea

∙ Some epithelial cells regenerate before death occurs

∙ However, because of the large number of epithelial cells damaged
by the radiation, death may occur before cell regeneration is
accomplished 39
GIS – Cont’d

∙ Symptoms are malaise, anorexia, severe diarrhea,

fever, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalance

∙ Death is due to infection, dehydration, and electrolyte

imbalance

∙ Death occurs within 3 -12 days of exposure

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Cerebrovascular syndrome (CVS): >30 Gy
∙ The cerebrovascular form of the ARS results when the central nervous
system and cardiovascular system receive doses of 30 Gy or more of
ionizing radiation.

∙ Onset occurs 5 to 6 hours after exposure

∙ A latent period lasting up to 12 hours follows. During this time, symptoms
lessen or disappear

∙ After the latent period the manifest illness stage occurs

∙ During this period the prodromal syndrome recurs with increased severity, 41
and other symptoms appear
CVS – Cont’d
∙ Damaged blood vessels and permeable capillaries permit fluid to
leak into the brain, causing an increase in fluid content

∙ This creates an increase in intracranial pressure and causes more tissue

damage

∙ The final result of this damage is failure of the central nervous and
cardiovascular systems

∙ Symptoms are return of watery, diarrhea, convulsions, and coma

∙ Death occurs within 24 - 48 hours of exposure 42

Radiation Accidents

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Radiation Accidents

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Radiation Accidents

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Radiation Injuries

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Risks of Health Effects of Radiation

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Application of Gamma Radiation in Medicine
• Nuclear medicine diagnostic: Tc-99m, I-131, F-18
• Cancer treatment with gamma beam radiotheraphy: Co-60
• Brachytherapy: Ir-192
• Blood irradiator: Cs-137

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Application of Gamma Radiation in Industry

• Oil and Gas industry,

factories, instruments
callibaration: Cobalt-60
(60Co)
• Nuclear energy:
Uranium -235 (235U)

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Summary – γ rays
∙ γ rays are an energetic form of electromagnetic radiation produced by
radioactivity or nuclear or subatomic processes such as electron-positron
annihilation.
∙ γ rays are the rays that have the most powerful of emerge power in
comparison with alpha and beta particles (next lecture).
∙ γ rays has a frequencies higher than the other beam.
∙ γ rays is massless and not effected to the magnetic field.
∙ γ rays were used for cancer treatment and to kill the cancer cells, BUT
gamma rays itself has probabilities to induced the cancer cell if not
properly controlled the resource (Dosimetry part). 50
 Terima Kasih!
Thank You!
Merci!
Danke!
Bedankt!
Grazie!
Questions/ Comments?
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Question
What is the reason why do we practice 20 mSv/year for
radiation worker dose limit per year?

Email me your answer to: [email protected]

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