Chapter Seven

Unconventional Machining Processes:

Contents
Ultrasonic Machining(UM)
Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
Chemical Machining(CM)
Electro-chemical Machining (ECM)
Electro-chemical Grinding(ECM)
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
 Non-traditional Machining Processes
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups:
a) primary manufacturing processes
Provide basic shape and size
a) secondary manufacturing processes
Provide final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface
characteristics Material removal processes once again can be divided
into two groups
1. Conventional Machining Processes
2. Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes or non-conventional
Manufacturing processes
Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form
of chips by applying forces on the work material with a wedge shaped
cutting tool that is harder than the work material under machining
condition.
 Non-traditional Machining Processes
The major characteristics of conventional machining are:
 Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation

 Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy domain can be
classified as mechanical
 Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under machining
conditions

Non-conventional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that remove excess

material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or
combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for
traditional manufacturing processes.

The major characteristics of Non-conventional machining are:

1. Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation may take place. For
example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical machining material
removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
 Non-traditional Machining Processes
The major characteristics of Non-conventional machining
In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser jet
machining, machining is carried out by laser beam. However in
Electrochemical Machining there is a physical tool that is very much
required for machining
In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For
example, in EDM, copper is used as the tool material to machine
hardened steels.
Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to provide
material removal. They use different energy domains to provide
machining. For example, in USM, AJM, WJM mechanical energy is
used to machine material, whereas in ECM electrochemical dissolution
constitutes material removal.
 Non traditional machining methods are typically
divided into the following categories:
Mechanical -
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
 Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Abrasive water jet machining (EWJM)
Electrical
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
 Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
 Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)
Thermal
 Electro-discharge machining (EDM)
 Laser Jet Machining (LJM)
Electro beam machining (EBM)
Chemical
Chemical Milling, Photochemical Machining
Chemical Milling (CHM)
Photochemical Milling (PCM)
Why NTM needs?

• Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to

machine by traditional machining processes such as
turning, drilling, shaping and milling.
• When the shape of the part is too complex
• Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for
traditional machining
 5.1 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

• In die-sinking EDM systems, the electrode (cutting tool) and work-piece are held by the
machine tool. A power supply controls the electrical discharges and movement of the
electrode in relation to the work-piece.

• During operation the work-piece is submerged in a bath of dielectric fluid (non-conducting).

(Die-Sinking EDM is also called Sinker, Conventional, Plunge or Vertical EDM).

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 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.

Based on erosion of metals by spark discharge. The cavity is is formed by the shape of the electrode.
schematic of an EDM process
 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

• During normal operation the electrode never touches the work-piece, but is
separated by a small spark gap.
• The electrode (plunger) can be a complex shape, and can be moved in X, Y, and
Z axes, as well as rotated, enabling more complex shapes with accuracy better
than one mil. (this is called CNC plunger EDM)
• The spark discharges are pulsed on and off at a high frequency cycle and can
repeat 250,000 times per second. Each discharge melts or vaporizes a small area
of the work piece surface.
• Plunge EDM is best used in tool and die manufacturing, or for creating extremely
accurate molds for injection-molding plastic parts.
• The amount of material removed from the work piece with each pulse is directly
proportional to the energy it contains.

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 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

• The dielectric fluid in EDM performs the following functions:

It acts as an insulator until sufficiently high potential is reached .
Acts as a coolant medium and reduces the extremely high temp. in the arc gap.
More importantly, the dielectric fluid is pumped through the arc gap to flush
away the eroded particles between the work-piece and the electrode which is
critical to high metal removal rates and good machining conditions.
Note;-A relatively soft graphite or metallic electrode can easily machine hardened
tool steels or tungsten carbide. One of the many attractive benefits of using the
EDM process.
 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

• Stepped cavities produced with a

square electrode by EDM. The work
piece moves in the two principal
horizontal directions, and its motion
is synchronized with the downward
movement of the electrode to
produce various cavities
• Also shown is a round electrode
capable of producing round or
eliptical cavities. Obviously, this is
done under computer control (CNC
plunger EDM).

04/03/23
 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
• Surface finish is affected by gap voltage,
discharge current, and frequency Typical use Hard, machining of brittle metals, tool making

• The EDM process can be used on any material Tool Carbon, zinc, brass, copper, silver-tungsten or copper-tungsten
that is an electrical conductor
• The EDM process does not involve mechanical Dielectric medium Distilled water (DI), petroleum oils, silicones, triethylene, glycol
energy, therefore, materials with high hardness water mixtures
and strength can easily be machined.
Aspect ratio of As high as 100:1
• Applications include producing die cavity for large holes
components, deep small holes, complicated
internal cavities Surface finish 1 to 3 µm but even 0.25 µm has been reported
• EDM is not a fast method; some jobs can take
days to produce holes, so its use is limited to jobs Gap size/voltage 25 µm/80 V

that cannot easily be done in other ways (e.g.

oblong slots or complex shapes, sometimes in Removal rate 0.001 to 0.1 cm3/hr
very hard material).
Workpiece Conductor
• Note too the work must be conductive so it does
not work on materials such as glass or ceramic, or
most plastics.
 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
• When referring to micro electrical discharge machining (µ-EDM) one refers
either to working with a small EDM machine (see Figure for a hand-held
EDM at Panasonic) or to working with smaller than usual electrodes (in
sinker EDM) or with thinner wires (in EDM-WC).
 Batch Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
• The use of microelectrode arrays enables one to use µ-EDM in batch
mode as pioneered by Takahata
• Takahata employed the LIGA process to make microelectrode
arrays.
• Structures made with this hybrid LIGA-EDM method are shown in
the Figure on the right.
 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

• Electrical discharge machining wire

cutting (EDM-WC) is a thermal mass-
reducing process that uses a
continuously moving wire to remove
material by means of rapid controlled
repetitive spark discharges. 
• A dielectric fluid is used to flush the
removed particles, regulate the
discharge, and keep the wire and
workpiece cool.  The wire and
workpiece must be electrically
conductive.

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 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

• Schematic illustration of the wire

EDM process. As much as 50
hours of machining can be
performed with one reel of wire,
which is then discarded.

Typical EDM-WC products.

04/03/23
 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

• Utilizes a traveling wire that is

advance within arcing distance of
the workpiece (0.001 in.)
• Removes material by rapid,
controlled, repetitive spark
• Uses dielectric fluid to flush
removed particles, control
discharge, and cool wire and
workpiece
• Is performed on electrically
conductive workpieces
• Can produce complex two-
dimensional shapes

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 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

• Numerically controlled wire EDM has

revolutionized die making, particularly for
plastic molders. Wire EDM is now common in
tool-and-die shops. Shape accuracy in EDM-
WC in a working environment with
temperature variations of about 3°C is about 4
µm. If temperature control is within ± 1°C, the
obtainable accuracy is closer to 1 µm.
• No burrs are generated and since no cutting
forces are present, wire EDM is ideal for
delicate parts.
• No tooling is required, so delivery times are
short. Pieces over 16 in thick can be machined.
Tools and parts are machined after heat
treatment, so dimensional accuracy is held
and not affected by heat treat distortion.

04/03/23
 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

• The vertical, horizontal and slanted cutting with the µ-EDM-WC tool has successfully
fabricated complex features and parts.
• An example is the impressive Chinese pagoda (1.25 mm × 1.75 mm) shown here
where vertical and horizontal µ-EDM-WC cuts are illustrated

04/03/23
5.2 Chemical machining

Local melting of material by suitable diluent.

• Machining of metal materials,

• Removing speed of material independence on
hardness and on toughness,
• Surfaces with complicated shape with high accuracy
and quality,
• Here is no originated heat and mechanical influence
area,
• Large areas – more economical than milling
Chemical machining

1 – base material,
2 – mask,
3 – holes carved out of
mask,

In the place of holes the

material is melted by
influence of diluents.
Material machinability

Four groups of materials by chemical machinability:

• Copper, bronze – easy they are melted, good

machinability by chemical machining,
• nickel, zinc, aluminium
• manganese, molybdenum,
• chrome, gold, wolfram – they are hard melted, bad
machinability by chemical machining
Diluents for chemical machining

• Ferrous metals – different acids,

• copper, alloys of copper, heavy metals – chloride of

ferrum FeCl3,

• Aluminium, alloys of aluminium, light metals – caustic

soda NaOH
Workpiece preparation for chemical machining

• Grease removal and surface cleaning – removing the

allochemicals from surface and oxidic coats too (Al
alloys – AL2O3 coat), dipping into 5% medium NaOH and
next into 30% medium of acid of nitride,
• steeping – increasing of mask adhesion, dipping into
medium H2SO4 and next duochrom of patassic,
• masking – coating resisted on influence of diluent
(resin, enamel) thickness till 2 mm.
Workpiece preparation for chemical machining

• Mask drying – mask coating is drying 6 till 8 hours, it can be accelerated in

the furnace (small workpieces),

• Engraving of mask – into drying mask are created holes (hand engraving,
engraving by laser ...),
Time needed for machining

• It is independence on the size of the machined surface,

• It is depend on depth of machining only,

• Speed of outline 0,01 till 0,5 mm/min.,

• mask resisted to outlining approximately 8 hours.

Mask undercutting

Speed of outline in homogenne material is the same in

all directions. Rate of undercutting is approximately the
same as depth of outlining.
Mask undercutting

• Is not possible to make shape rims,

• In immersion into etching pool is needed to assure that
origin gas is not to mass in the place of undercut
(scaling of mask, non-constant speed of
undercutting....), side long immersion, mixturing,
• Mixturing of etching pool:
• Washing off etching impurities,
• Asked concentration of etchant in the place of etching,
• Outflow of gas bubbles.
Spraying of etching solution
Kinds of chemical machining

• Chemical clipping,
• chemical milling (deeping),
• Chemical engraving
• chemical sharping,
• Chemical polishing,
• Machining by active substance,
• Photochemical machining,
• termic removing of burrs.
Chemical clipping

• Thin plates,
• Completely component is sinking,
• Small, shape difficult components

Example:
• Plotters of shavers
Chemical milling

Accuracy shaping of difficult big shape surfaces.

Speed of removing is moving round 0,025 mm/min.
Originated undercutting, is necessary to speculate with
undercutting in the mask production.
Dimensions accuracy is given by thickness of removing
layer. Roughness is between Ra=0,75 to Ra=3,8.
Chemical milling

Using of chemical milling:

• aerial and cosmic industry – local releasing of casts and forgings of light
and high strength alloys,

• Small metal components of high strength material when is not

economical to produce dies.
Chemical engraving, grinding, polishing
• engraving – dimension of picturing is small for using of
mechanical engraving – matrixs of post marks,

• grinding – very accurated shapes (accuracy under

1mm), low roughness (Ra 0,01),

• polishing – still softer than grinding, using in small and

shape difficult components that by mechanical kind is
not possible to polish.
Machining by active substance

Machining shape difficult surfaces.

Semi-solid substance of cellulose (electro gel)
impregnated by acid is attach to the workpiece surface.
In the place of contact the workpiece is melted.
Is possible to achieve step by step removing until depth
10 mm. Dimension accuracy is from 0,02 to 0,07 mm.
For acceleration of process is possible to connected
electric voltage until 10V.
Machining by active substance
Photochemical machining

Mask is created by photographic kind.

Using in production:
• Masks of TV set and screening,
• Code disks,
• Optical divider,
• gasket,
• Ornamental object,
• Semiconductor components.
Photochemical machining
• Patern of production – laser beam creating the sign
in the photographical film. This picture (master) is
frequently applied to photo tool. (patern).
• Preparation of surface – surface must be cleaned,
grease removing, eventually to pickle,
• Coating of photoresist – it is polymer sensitive to
ultraviolet emission is necessary to dry him.
• Processing of photoresist – through the pattern is
photoresist emissed by light of suitable wave length
(UV) and is created mask (positive, negative).
Photochemical machining

Advantage of photochemical machining:

• Low costs of tools,

• Low costs of modification,
• Simply transmission to series production,
• Properties of the base material are not damages,
• No originated burrs.
Thermic removing of burrs

Burrs are removed by influence of thermic wave (by explosion).

Thermic wave has temperature more than 3000°C and lasted particular s.
Burrs are melted or evaporated but workpiece is not in time to absorbing a
lot of heat.
Burrs are verily removed from inaccessible places.
Thermic burrs removing
 Chemical-Machining

Figure 27.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process. Note that no forces or
machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical
machining; note the undercut.
Electrochemical Machining

Figure 27.6 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical machining process.

Parts Made by Electrochemical Machining

Figure 27.7 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of
nickel alloy of 360 HB. Note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-
steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
Knee Implants

Figure 27.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top
pieces) with an ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b)
Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal implant. Source: Courtesy of
Biomet, Inc.
Electrochemical-Grinding Process

Figure 27.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b)

Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
 Electrical-Discharge Machining Process

Figure 27.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is one of the most
widely used machining processes, particularly for die-sinking applications. (b) Examples of cavities produced by
the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for
extruding the aluminum piece shown in front (see also Fig. 19.9b). (c) A spiral cavity produced by EDM using a
slowly rotating electrode similar to a screw thread. (d) Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle made by EDM; the material
is heat-treated steel. Source: (b) Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
Stepped Cavities Produced by EDM Process

Figure 27.11 Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The
workpiece moves in the two principle horizontal directions (x – y), and its motion is
synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also
shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities. Source:
Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
The Wire EDM Process

Metal removal rate :

MRR  4 10 4 ITw1.23
where
I  current in amperes
Tw  melting temperature of workpiece, C

Figure 27.12 Schematic illustration of the wire


EDM process. As many as 50 hours of machining
can be performed with one reel of wire, which is
then discarded.
 Wire EDM

(a) (b)

Figure 27.13 (a) Cutting a thick plate with wire EDM. (b) A computer-
controlled wire EDM machine. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
Manufacturing, Engineering &
Technology, Fifth Edition, by
Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R.
Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Electron-Beam Machining Process

Figure 27.15 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining

process. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece
Manufacturing, Engineering &
Technology, Fifthsize isbylimited to the size of the vacuum chamber.
Edition,
Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R.
Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
 Water-Jet
Cutting
Process

Figure 27.16 (a) Schematic illustration of the water-jet machining process. (b) A computer-
controlled water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic
partsManufacturing,
producedEngineering
by the water-jet
& cutting process. (Enlarged on next slide). Source: Courtesy of
Technology, Fifth Edition, by
Possis Corporation
Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R.
Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Nonmetallic Parts Made by Water-Jet Cutting

Enlargement of Fig. 27.16c. Examples of various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-
Manufacturing, Engineering &
jet cutting process. Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation
Technology, Fifth Edition, by
Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R.
Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
5.3 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

55
 Introduction

 A stream of abrasive grains (Al2O3 or SiC) is carried by high pressure

gas or air (compressed).
 Impinges on the work surface at very high velocity through a nozzle of
0.3 to 0.5 mm diameter.
 Sand Blasting (SB) - a similar process
 The major differences between are SB and AJM
(i) smaller diameter abrasives
(ii) a more finely controlled delivery system
 Material removal – by mechanical abrasion action of the high velocity
abrasive particles.
 Best suited for hole drilling in superhard materials.
 Typically used to cut, clean, peen, deburr, deflash and etch glass,
ceramics and other hard materials.

56
Machining System

57
Machining System – Contd.

 A gas (Nitrogen, CO2 or air) is supplied at 2 – 8 kg/cm2

 Oxygen should never be used. (because, it causes violent
chemical action with the workpiece chips or abrasive particles).
 Gas passes through a mixing chamber after filtration and
regulation.
 In the mixing chamber, abrasive particles (10 – 40 m) are
present and vibrated at 50 Hz.
 Amplitude of vibration – to control the feed rate of abrasives.
 (Gas + abrasives) - passed through a 0.45 mm diameter tungsten
carbide nozzle at a speed of 150 – 300 m/s.
 The nozzle is directed over the area to be machined.

58
Machining System – Contd.

 Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC) powders are

used for heavy cleaning, cutting and deburring.
 Magnesium carbonate is recommended for use in light cleaning
and etching.
 Sodium bicorbonate – fine cleaning and cutting of soft materials.
 Commercial grade powders are not suitable – b’cos their sizes are
not well classified. Also, they may contain silica which can cause a
health hazard.
 Abrasive powders are not reused. B’cos, contaminations and worn
grits will reduce the machining rate (MRR).
 The nozzle stand off distance is 0.81 mm.

59
Machining System – Contd.
 Relative motion between nozzle and workpiece – can be manual
 Or automatically controlled using cam drives, tracer mechanisms
or using computer controlled according to the cut geometry
required.
 Masks of copper, glass or rubber – can be used to concentrate the
jet stream of abrasives to a confined area on the workpiece.
 Intricate and precise shapes can be produced using masks with
corresponding contours.
 Dust removal or collecting equipment must be incorporated to
protect the environment.

60
Material Removal

 The abrasive particles from the nozzle follow parallel paths for a short distance
 Then the abrasive jet flares outward like a narrow cone.
 When the sharp-edged abrasive particles of Al2O3 or SiC hit a brittle and
fragile material at high speed, tiny brittle fractures are created from which
small particles dislodge.
 The dislodged particles are carried away by the air or gas.

61
Material Removal Rate
 Material or Volumetric Removal Rate (MRR or VRR) is given by the formula

62
Process Parameters
 MRR, machining accuracy, surface roughness and nozzle wear are influenced
by
 Size and distance of the nozzle.
 Composition, strength, size, and shape of abrasives
 Flow rate
 Composition, pressure, and velocity of the carrier gas.
 MRR is mainly dependent on the flow rate and size of abrasives.
 Larger grain sizes produce greater removal rates.
 At a particular pressure, the VRR increases with the abrasive flow rate up to an
optimum value and then decreases with any further increase in flow rate.
(Why?)
 The mass flow rate of the gas decreases with an increase in the abrasive flow
rate
 Hence the mixing ratio increases and causes a decrease in the removal rate
because of the decreasing energy available for material removal.

63
Process Parameters – Contd.
 Typical MRR is 16.4 mm3/min when cutting glass.
 Cutting rates for metals vary from 1.6 to 4.1 mm3/min.
 For harder ceramics, cutting rates are about 50 percent higher than those for
glass – 24.6 mm3/min.
 The minimum width of cut can be 0.13 mm.
 Tolerances are typically within  0.05 mm by using good fixation and motion
control.
 Finished surface has a random or matte texture.
 Attainable surface roughness - 0.2 to 1.5 µm using 10 and 50 µm particles,
respectively.
 Taper is present in deep cuts.
 High nozzle pressures result in a greater removal rate, but the nozzle life is
decreased.

64
Process Characteristics

65
Applications
 Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, polishing,
and radiusing.
 Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision parts that require
a burr-free finish, such as hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel systems, and medical
appliances.
 Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive, brittle, thin, or difficult-to-
machine materials.
 Insulation stripping and wire cleaning without affecting the conductor.
 Micro-deburring of hypodermic needles.
 Frosting glass and trimming of circuit boards, hybrid circuit resistors,
capacitors, silicon, and gallium.
 Removal of films and delicate cleaning of irregular surfaces because the
abrasive stream is able to follow contours.

66
Advantages
 Because AJM is a cool machining process, it is best suited for machining
brittle and heat-sensitive materials like glass, quartz, sapphire, and ceramics.
 The process is used for machining superalloys and refractory materials.
 It is not reactive with any workpiece material.
 No tool changes are required.
 Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined.
 The machined materials do not experience hardening.
 No initial hole is required for starting the operation as required by wire EDM.
 Material utilization is high.
 It can machine thin materials.

67
Limitations
 The removal rate is slow.
 Stray cutting can’t be avoided (low accuracy of  0.1 mm).
 The tapering effect may occur especially when drilling in metals.
 The abrasive may get impeded in the work surface.
 Suitable dust-collecting systems should be provided.
 Soft materials can’t be machined by the process.
 Silica dust may be a health hazard.
 Ordinary shop air should be filtered to remove moisture and oil.

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