Chemical Reactions and Reaction Stoichiometry: Lecture Presentation

Lecture Presentation
Chapter 3
Chemical Reactions
and Reaction
Stoichiometry
James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
Hamden, CT
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Stoichiometry: 화학양론
• Area of study that examines the quantities of
substances consumed and produced in
chemical reactions
• Based on the Law of Conservation of Mass
질량보존의 법칙 (Antoine Lavoisier, 1789)
“We may lay it down as an

incontestable axiom that, in all the
operations of art and nature, nothing
is created; an equal amount of matter
exists both before and after the
experiment. Upon this principle, the
whole art of performing chemical
experiments depends.”
—Antoine Lavoisier
Chemical Equations
• Chemical equations are how chemists represent
chemical reactions on paper.
• The quantitative nature of chemical formulas and
reactions is called stoichiometry ( 화학양론 ).
- Arrows separate the starting materials (on the left),
called reactants, from the ending materials (on the
right), called products.
- “+” separates multiple starting or ending materials.
Stoichiometry

Balancing Equations
• Follow the Law of Conservation of Mass, but how?
• Start with an element that is only in one reactant and
product (C below).
• Balance it by changing coefficients ( 계수 ), NOT subscripts.
(Like in math, a “1” is not written, but it is assumed.)
• Move on to other elements, without changing coefficients
that are set, until complete, checking all elements at the
end (H, then O here; totals below).
Stoichiometry

Why Do We Add Coefficients ( 계수 )
Instead of Changing Subscripts to Balance?
• Hydrogen and oxygen can make water OR hydrogen

peroxide
– 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
– H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O2(l)
• We don’t change the formula because we don’t Stoichiometry
drink hydrogen peroxide.
Other Symbols in Chemical Equations
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) Δ CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The states of matter for the reactants and products

are often written in parentheses to the right of each
formula or symbol.
(g) = gas; (l) = liquid; (s) = solid;
(aq) = dissolve in aqueous (water) Stoichiometry
© 2018solution
Pearson Education, Inc.
Other Symbols in Chemical Equations
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) Δ CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Other symbols can be used to represent conditions

during the chemical reaction. One example is the
use of Δ over the reaction arrow, which means heat
is needed for the reaction to take place.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.1 Interpreting and Balancing Chemical Equations
The following diagram represents a chemical reaction in
which the red spheres are oxygen atoms and the blue
spheres are nitrogen atoms. (a) Write the chemical
formulas for the reactants and products. (b) Write a
balanced equation for the reaction. (c) Is the diagram
consistent with the law of conservation of mass?
Solution
(a) The left box, which represents reactants, contains two kinds of molecules, those composed of two oxygen atoms
(O2) and those composed of one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom (NO). The right box, which represents
products, contains only one kind of molecule, which is composed of one nitrogen atom and two oxygen
atoms (NO2).
(b) The unbalanced chemical equation is O2 + NO NO2 (unbalanced)
An inventory of atoms on each side of the equation shows that there are one N and three O on the left side of the
arrow and one N and two O on the right. To balance O, we must increase the number of O atoms on the right while
keeping the coefficients for NO and NO2 equal. Sometimes a trial-and-error approach is required; we need to go
back and forth several times from one side of an equation to the other, changing coefficients first on one side of the
equation and then the other until it is balanced. In our present case, let’s start by increasing the number of O atoms
on the right side of the equation by placing the coefficient 2 in front of NO2:
O2 + NO 2 NO2 (unbalanced)
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.1 Interpreting and Balancing Chemical Equations
Now the equation gives two N atoms and four O atoms on the right, so we go back to the left side. Placing the
coefficient 2 in front of NO balances both N and O:
O2 + 2 NO 2 NO2 (balanced)
(2 N, 4 O) (2 N, 4 O)
(c) The reactants box contains four O2 and eight NO. Thus, the molecular ratio is one O2 for each two NO, as required
by the balanced equation. The products box contains eight NO2, which means the number of NO2 product
molecules equals the number of NO reactant molecules, as the balanced equation requires.
There are eight N atoms in the eight NO molecules in the reactants box. There are also 4 × 2 = 8 O atoms in the
O2 molecules and 8 O atoms in the NO molecules, giving a total of 16 O atoms. In the products box, we find eight
NO2 molecules, which contain eight N atoms and NO2 molecules, which contain eight N atoms and 8 × 2 = 16 O
atoms. Because there are equal numbers of N and O atoms in the two boxes, the drawing is consistent with the law
of conservation of mass.
Practice Exercise 1
In the following diagram, the white spheres
represent hydrogen atoms and the blue
spheres represent nitrogen atoms.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
Balance the equation
Na(s) + H2O (l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Solution
Begin by counting each kind of atom on the two sides of the arrow. There are one Na, one O, and two H on the left
side, and one Na, one O, and three H on the right. The Na and O atoms are balanced, but the number of H atoms is
not. To increase the number of H atoms on the left, let’s try placing the coefficient 2 in front of H2O:
Na(s) + 2H2O (l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Although beginning this way does not balance H, it does increase the number of reactant H atoms, which we need to
do. (Also, adding the coefficient 2 on H2O unbalances O, but we will take care of that after we balance H.) Now that
we have 2 H2O on the left, we balance H by putting the coefficient 2 in front of NaOH:
Na(s) + 2H2O (l) 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Balancing H in this way brings O into balance, but now Na is unbalanced, with one Na on the left and two on the
right. To rebalance Na, we put the coefficient 2 in front of the reactant:
2 Na(s) + 2H2O (l) 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
We now have two Na atoms, four H atoms, and two O atoms on each side. The equation is balanced.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
Comment Notice that we moved back and forth, placing a coefficient in front of H2O, then NaOH, and finally Na.
In balancing equations, we often find ourselves following this pattern of moving back and forth from one side of
the arrow to the other, placing coefficients first in front of a formula on one side and then in front of a formula on
the other side until the equation is balanced. You can always tell if you have balanced your equation correctly by
checking that the number of atoms of each element is the same on the two sides of the arrow, and that you’ve
chosen the smallest set of coefficients that balances the equation.
Practice Exercise 1
The unbalanced equation for the reaction between methane and bromine is
__CH4(g) + __ Br2(l) __ CBr4 (s) + __ HBr(g)
Once this equation is balanced, what is the value of the coefficient in front of bromine Br 2?
(a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4, (e) 6.
Practice Exercise 2
Balance these equations by providing the missing coefficients:
(a) __ Fe(s) + __ O2(g) __Fe2O3(s)
(b) __ Al(s) + __ HCl(aq) __ AlCl3(aq) + __ H2(g)
(c) __ CaCO3(s) + __ HCl(aq) __ CaCl2(aq) + __ CO2(g) + __ H2O(l)
Stoichiometry

Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
• Types of reactions, which can be predicted at this
point
– Combination reactions
– Decomposition reactions
– Combustion reactions
Stoichiometry

Combination Reactions
• In a combination reaction, two or more

substances react to form one product.
Stoichiometry

Combination Reaction Predictions:
Metal and Nonmetal
• You should be able to predict the product of a
combination reaction between a metal and a
nonmetal, like the one below. (Hint: Remember
common charges for Groups!)
Stoichiometry

Decomposition Reactions
• In a decomposition
reaction one substance
breaks down into two or
more substances.
• In the air bag, solid
sodium azide releases
nitrogen gas quickly.
2NaN3(s)  2Na(s) + 3N2(g)
Stoichiometry

Decomposition Reaction Predictions:
Heating a Metal Carbonate
• Metal carbonates decompose when heated to give
off carbon dioxide and a metal oxide.
• Balancing these equations is based on the charge
of the metal.
CaCO3(s) Δ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.3 Writing Balanced Equations for Combination
and Decomposition Reactions
Write a balanced equation for (a) the combination reaction between lithium metal and fluorine gas and (b) the
decomposition reaction that occurs when solid barium carbonate is heated (two products form, a solid and a gas).
Solution
(a) With the exception of mercury, all metals are solids at room temperature. Fluorine occurs as a diatomic molecule.
Thus, the reactants are Li(s) and F2(g). The product will be composed of a metal and a nonmetal, so we expect it to
be an ionic solid. Lithium ions have a 1+ charge, Li+, whereas fluoride ions have a 1− charge, F−. Thus, the chemical
formula for the product is LiF. The balanced chemical equation is
2 Li(s) + F2(g) 2 LiF(s)
(b) The chemical formula for barium carbonate is BaCO3. As mentioned, many metal carbonates decompose to metal
oxides and carbon dioxide when heated. In Equation 3.7, for example, CaCO3 decomposes to form CaO and CO2.
Thus, we expect BaCO3 to decompose to BaO and CO2. Barium and calcium are both in group 2A in the periodic
table, which further suggests they react in the same way:
BaCO3(s) BaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Stoichiometry

Combustion Reactions
• Combustion reactions are

rapid reactions that produce
a flame.
• Combustion reactions most
often involve oxygen in the
air as a reactant.
Stoichiometry

Combustion Reaction Predictions
• When burning compounds with C and H in them,

the products are CO2 and H2O.
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.4 Writing Balanced Equations for Combustion
Reactions
Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when methanol, CH3OH(l), is burned in air.
Solution
When any compound containing C, H, and O is combusted, it reacts with the O2(g) in air to produce CO2(g) and
H2O(g). Thus, the unbalanced equation is
CH3OH(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
The C atoms are balanced, one on each side of the arrow. Because CH3OH has four H atoms, we place the
coefficient 2 in front of H2O to balance the H atoms:
CH3OH(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
Adding this coefficient balances H but gives four O atoms in the products. Because there are only three O atoms in
the reactants, we are not finished. We can place the coefficient in front of O2 to give four O atoms in the reactants
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.4 Writing Balanced Equations for Combustion
Reactions
Although this equation is balanced, it is not in its most conventional form because it contains a fractional coefficient.
However, multiplying through by 2 removes the fraction and keeps the equation balanced:
2 CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
Practice Exercise 1
Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when ethylene glycol, C 2H4(OH)2, burns in air.
(a) C2H4(OH)2(l) + 5 O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
(b) 2 C2H4(OH)2(l) + 5 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g)
(c) C2H4(OH)2(l) + 3 O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
(d) C2H4(OH)2(l) + 5 O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
(e) 4 C2H4(OH)2(l) + 10 O2(g) 8 CO2(g) + 12 H2O(g)
Practice Exercise 2
Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when ethanol, C 2H5OH(l), burns in air.
Stoichiometry

Formula Weight (FW)
• A formula weight is the sum of the atomic weights
for the atoms in a chemical formula.
• This is the quantitative significance of a formula.
• For an element like sodium, Na, the formula
weight is the atomic weight (23.0 amu).
• For an ionic compound, use the empirical formula.
• The formula weight of sulfuric acid, H2SO4,
would be
– 2(AW of H) + 1(AW of S) + 4(AW of O)
– 2(1.0 amu) + 32.1 amu + 4(16.0 amu)
– FW (H2SO4) = 98.1 amu Stoichiometry

Molecular Weight (MW)
• If the substance is a molecule, the formula weight

is also called its molecular weight.
• A molecular weight is the sum of the atomic
weights of the atoms in a molecule.
• For glucose, which has a molecular formula of
C6H12O6, the molecular weight is
– 6(AW of C) + 12(AW of H) + 6(AW of O)
– 6(12.0 amu) + 12(1.0 amu) + 6(16.0 amu)
– MW (C6H12O6) = 180.0 amu
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.5 Calculating Formula Weights
ight of (a) sucrose, C12H22O11 (table sugar); and (b) calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.
Solution
(a) By adding the atomic weights of the atoms in sucrose, we find the formula weight to be 342.0 amu:
(b) If a chemical formula has parentheses, the subscript outside the parentheses is a multiplier for all atoms
inside. Thus, for Ca(NO3)2 we have
Practice Exercise 1
Which of the following is the correct formula weight for calcium phosphate?
(a) 310.2 amu, (b) 135.1 amu, (c) 182.2 amu, (d) 278.2 amu, (e) 175.1 amu.
Practice Exercise 2
Calculate the formula weight of (a) Al(OH)3, (b) CH3OH, and (c) TaON.
Stoichiometry

Percent Composition
One can find the percentage of the mass of a

compound that comes from each of the
elements in the compound by using this
equation: 각 원소별 무게 %
(number of atoms)(atomic weight)

% Element = × 100
(FW of the compound)
Stoichiometry

Percent Composition
So the percentage of carbon in glucose is:
(6)(12.0 amu)
%C =
(180.0 amu)
72.0 amu
= × 100
180.0 amu
= 40.0%
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.6 Calculating Percentage Composition
Calculate the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (by mass) in C12H22O11.
Solution
We’ll use the steps outlined in the Strategies For Success: Problem Solving feature to answer the question.
Analyze We are given a chemical formula and asked to calculate the percentage by mass of each element.
Plan We use Equation 3.10, obtaining our atomic weights from a periodic table. We know the denominator in
Equation 3.10, the formula weight of C12H22O11, from Sample Exercise 3.5. We must use that value in three
calculations, one for each element.
Solve
Check Our calculated percentages must add up to 100%, which they do. We could have used more significant
figures for our atomic weights, giving more significant figures for our percentage composition, but we have
adhered to our suggested guideline of rounding atomic weights to one digit beyond the decimal point.
Stoichiometry

Avogadro’s Number
• In a lab, we cannot work

with individual molecules.
They are too small.
• One mole (abbreviated:
mol) is the amount of
particles found in exactly
12 g of C-12.
• 6.02 × 1023 atoms or
molecules is the number
of particles in one mole.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.7 Estimating Numbers of Atoms
Without using a calculator, arrange these samples in order of increasing numbers of carbon atoms:
12 g 12C, 1 mol C2H2, 9 × 1023 molecules of CO2.
Solution
Analyze We are given amounts of three substances expressed in grams, moles, and number of molecules and asked to
arrange the samples in order of increasing numbers of C atoms.
Plan To determine the number of C atoms in each sample, we must convert 12 g 12C, 1 mol C2H2, and 9 × 1023
molecules CO2 to numbers of C atoms. To make these conversions, we use the definition of mole and Avogadro’s
number.
Solve One mole is defined as the amount of matter that contains as many units of the matter as there are C atoms in
exactly 12 g of 12C. Thus, 12 g of 12C contains 1 mol of C atoms = 6.02 × 1023 C atoms.
One mol of C2H2 contains 6.02 × 1023 C2H2 molecules. Because there are two C atoms in each molecule, this sample
contains 12.04 × 1023 C atoms.
Because each CO2 molecule contains one C atom, the CO2 sample contains 9 × 1023 C atoms.
Hence, the order is 12 g 12C (6 × 1023 C atoms) < 9 × 1023 CO2 molecules (9 × 1023 C atoms) < 1 mol C2H2
(12 × 1023 C atoms).
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.8 Converting Moles to Number of Atoms
Calculate the number of H atoms in 0.350 mol of C6H12O6.
Solution
Analyze We are given the amount of a substance (0.350 mol) and its chemical formula C 6H12O6. The unknown is
the number of H atoms in the sample.
Plan Avogadro’s number provides the conversion factor between number of moles of C 6H12O6 and number of
molecules of C6H12O6: 1 mol C6H12O6 = 6.02 × 1023 molecules of C6H12O6. Once we know the number of
molecules of C6H12O6, we can use the chemical formula, which tells us that each molecule of C6H12O6 contains
12 H atoms. Thus, we convert moles of C6H12O6 to molecules of C6H12O6 and then determine the number of
atoms of H from the number of molecules of C6H12O6:
Moles C6H12O6 molecules C6H12O6 atoms H
Solve
Stoichiometry

Molar Mass
• A molar mass is the mass
of 1 mol of a substance
(i.e., g/mol).
• The molar mass of an
element is the atomic
weight for the element from
the periodic table.
If it is diatomic, it is twice
that atomic weight.
• The formula weight (in
amu) will be the same
number as the molar mass
(in g/mol). Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.9 Calculating Molar Mass
What is the molar mass of glucose, C6H12O6?
Solution
Analyze We are given a chemical formula and asked to determine its molar mass.
Plan Because the molar mass of any substance is numerically equal to its formula weight, we first determine the
formula weight of glucose by adding the atomic weights of its component atoms. The formula weight will have
units of amu, whereas the molar mass has units of grams per mole (g/mol).
Solve Our first step is to determine the formula weight of glucose:
Because glucose has a formula weight of 180.0 amu, 1 mol of this substance (6.02 × 10 23 molecules) has a mass
of 180.0 g. In other words, C6H12O6 has a molar mass of 180.0 g/mol.
Check A molar mass below 250 seems reasonable based on the earlier examples we have encountered, and grams
per mole is the appropriate unit for the molar mass.
Stoichiometry

Mole Relationships
• One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains Avogadro’s

number of those particles.
• The number of atoms of an element in a mole is the
subscript in a formula (number of atoms of that element in
the formula) times Avogadro’s number. Stoichiometry

Converting Amounts
• Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to the

real-world scale.
• Using equalities, we can convert from mass to atoms
or from atoms to mass.
• How many atoms in 3 g of copper (Cu)?
• 3 g Cu x (1 mol Cu/63.5 g Cu) x
(6.02 x 1023 atoms/1 mol Cu) = 3 x 1022 atoms
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.11 Converting Moles to Grams
Calculate the mass, in grams, of 0.433 mol of calcium nitrate.
Solution
Analyze We are given the number of moles and the name of a substance and asked to calculate the number of
grams in the substance.
Plan To convert moles to grams, we need the molar mass, which we can calculate using the chemical formula and
atomic weights.
Solve Because the calcium ion is Ca2+ and the nitrate ion is NO3−, the chemical formula for calcium nitrate is
Ca(NO3)2. Adding the atomic weights of the elements in the compound gives a formula weight of 164.1 amu.
Using 1 mol Ca(NO3)2 = 164.1 g Ca(NO3)2 to write the appropriate conversion factor, we have
Check The number of moles is less than 1, so the number of grams must be less than the molar mass, 164.1 g.
Using rounded numbers to estimate, we have 0.5 × 150 = 75 g, which means the magnitude of our answer is
reasonable. Both the units (g) and the number of significant figures (3) are correct.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.12 Calculating Numbers of Molecules and Atoms
from Mass
(a) How many glucose molecules are in 5.23 g of C6H12O6?
(b) How many oxygen atoms are in this sample?
Solution
Analyze We are given the number of grams and the chemical formula of a substance and asked to calculate (a) the
number of molecules and (b) the number of O atoms in the substance.
Plan (a) The strategy for determining the number of molecules in a given quantity of a substance is summarized in
Figure 3.12. We must convert 5.23 g to moles of C6H12O6 and then convert moles to molecules of C6H12O6. The first
conversion uses the molar mass of C6H12O6, 180.0 g/mol, and the second conversion uses Avogadro’s number.
(b) To determine the number of O atoms, we use the fact that there are six O atoms in each C6H12O6 molecule. Thus,
multiplying the number of molecules we calculated in (a) by the factor (6 atoms O/1 molecule C6H12O6) gives the
number of O atoms.
Solve
(a) Convert grams C6H12O6 to
molecules C6H12O6
(b) Convert molecules C6H12O6

to atoms O.
Stoichiometry

Determining Empirical Formulas
• One can determine the empirical formula from the

percent composition by following these three
steps.
• 1) The compound para-aminobenzoic acid (you may have
seen it listed as PABA on your bottle of sunscreen) is
composed of carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen
(10.21%), and oxygen (23.33%). Find the empirical formula
of PABA.
Stoichiometry

• 2) Assuming 100.00 g of para-aminobenzoic acid
and converting to moles:
1 mol
C: 61.31 g × = 5.105 mol C
12.01 g
1 mol
H: 5.14 g × = 5.09 molgH
1.01
1 mol
N: 10.21 g × = 0.7288
14.01mol
g N
1 mol
O: 23.33 g × = 1.456 mol
16.00 gO
Stoichiometry

• 3) Calculate the mole ratio by dividing by the
smallest number of moles:
5.105 mol
C: = 7.005 ≈ 7
0.7288 mol
5.09 mol
H: = 6.984 ≈ 7
0.7288 mol
N: 0.7288 mol
= 1.000
0.7288 mol
O: 1.458 mol≈ 2
= 2.001
0.7288 mol Stoichiometry

4) These are the subscripts for the empirical formula:
C7H7NO2
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.13 Calculating an Empirical Formula
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula of
ascorbic acid?
Solution
Analyze We are to determine the empirical formula of a compound from the mass percentages of its elements.
Plan The strategy for determining the empirical formula involves the three steps given in Figure 3.13.
Solve
(1) For simplicity we assume we have exactly 100 g of material, although any other mass could also be used.
In 100.00 g of ascorbic acid we have 40.92 g C, 4.58 g H, and 54.50 g O.
(2) Next we calculate the number of moles of each element. We use atomic masses with four significant figures to
match the precision of our experimental masses.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.13 Calculating an Empirical Formula
(3) We determine the simplest whole-number ratio of moles by dividing each number of moles by the smallest
number of moles.
The ratio for H is too far from 1 to attribute the difference to experimental error; in fact, it is quite close to 1 .
This suggests we should multiply the ratios by 3 to obtain whole numbers:
C : H : O = (3 × 1 : 3 × 1.33 : 3 × 1) = (3 : 4 : 3)
Thus, the empirical formula is C3H4O3.

Stoichiometry

Determining a Molecular Formula
• Remember, the number of atoms in a molecular

formula is a multiple of the number of atoms in
an empirical formula.
• If we find the empirical formula and know a
molar mass (molecular weight) for the
compound, we can find the molecular formula.
Stoichiometry

Determining a Molecular Formula
• The empirical formula of a compound was found

to be CH. It has a molar mass of
78 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
• Solution:
C + H = 1(12) + 1(1) = 13
Whole-number multiple = 78/13 = 6
The molecular formula is C6H6.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.14 Determining a Molecular Formula
Mesitylene, a hydrocarbon found in crude oil, has an empirical formula of C 3H4 and an experimentally
determined molecular weight of 121 amu. What is its molecular formula?
Solution
Analyze We are given an empirical formula and a molecular weight of a compound and asked to determine its
molecular formula.
Plan The subscripts in a compound’s molecular formula are whole-number multiples of the subscripts in its
empirical formula. We find the appropriate multiple by using Equation 3.11.
Solve The formula weight of the empirical formula C3H4 is

3(12.0 amu) + 4(1.0 amu) = 40.0 amu
Next, we use this value in Equation 3.11 :
Only whole-number ratios make physical sense because molecules contain whole atoms. The 3.03 in this case
could result from a small experimental error in the molecular weight. We therefore multiply each subscript in the
empirical formula by 3 to give the molecular formula: C 9H12.
Stoichiometry

Combustion Analysis
• Compounds containing C, H, and O are routinely analyzed

through combustion in a chamber.
– Mass of C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced.
– Mass of H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.
– Mass of O is determined by the difference of the mass of the
compound used and the total mass of C and H.
– Note: The mass of O in the compound can NOT be
determined from CO2 and H2O because oxygen is Stoichiometry
added during the combustion.
Combustion Analysis
• Mass of C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced.
Stoichiometry

Combustion Analysis
• Mass of H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.15 Determining an Empirical Formula by
Combustion Analysis
Isopropyl alcohol, sold as rubbing alcohol, is composed of C, H, and O. Combustion of 0.255 g of isopropyl
alcohol produces 0.561 g of CO2 and 0.306 g of H2O. Determine the empirical formula of isopropyl alcohol.
Solution
Analyze We are told that isopropyl alcohol contains C, H, and O atoms and are given the quantities of CO 2 and
H2O produced when a given quantity of the alcohol is combusted. We must determine the empirical formula for
isopropyl alcohol, a task that requires us to calculate the number of moles of C, H, and O in the sample
Plan We can use the mole concept to calculate grams of C in the CO2 and grams of H in the H2O—the masses of
C and H in the alcohol before combustion. The mass of O in the compound equals the mass of the original sample
minus the sum of the C and H masses. Once we have the C, H, and O masses, we can proceed as in Sample
Exercise 3.13.
Solve Because all of the carbon in the sample is converted to CO2, we can use dimensional analysis and the
following steps to calculate the mass C in the sample.
Using the values given in this example, the mass of C is
Stoichiometry

Combustion Analysis
Because all of the hydrogen in the sample is converted to H2O, we can use dimensional analysis and the following
steps to calculate the mass H in the sample. We use three significant figures for the atomic mass of H to match the
significant figures in the mass of H2O produced.
Using the values given in this example, we find that the mass of H is
The mass of the sample, 0.255 g, is the sum of the masses of C, H, and O. Thus, the O mass is
Mass of O = mass of sample – (mass of C + mass of H) = 0.255 g – (0.153 g + 0.0343 g) = 0.068 g O
The number of moles of C, H, and O in the sample is therefore
Stoichiometry

Combustion Analysis
To find the empirical formula, we must compare the relative number of moles of each element in the sample, as
illustrated in Sample Exercise 3.13.
The first two numbers are very close to the whole numbers 3 and 8, giving the empirical formula C 3H8O.
Practice Exercise 1
The compound dioxane, which is used as a solvent in various industrial processes, is composed of C, H, and O atoms.
Combustion of a 2.203-g sample of this compound produces 4.401 g CO 2 and 1.802 g H2O. A separate experiment
shows that it has a molar mass of 88.1 g/mol. Which of the following is the correct molecular formula for dioxane?
(a) C2H4O (b) C4H4O2 (c) CH2 (d) C4H8O2
Practice Exercise 2
(a) Caproic acid, responsible for the odor of dirty socks, is composed of C, H, and O atoms. Combustion of a 0.225-g
sample of this compound produces 0.512 g CO2 and 0.209 g H2O. What is the empirical formula of caproic acid?
(b) Caproic acid has a molar mass of 116 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
Stoichiometry

Quantitative Information from a
Balanced Equation
• The coefficients in the balanced equation show

– Relative numbers of molecules of reactants and
products
– Relative numbers of moles of reactants and
products, which can be converted to mass Stoichiometry

Stoichiometric Calculations
• We have already seen in this chapter how to convert from

grams to moles or moles to grams.
• The new calculation is how to compare two different
materials, using the mole ratio from the balanced equation.
• The mole ratio (stoichiometric factors) comes from the
stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced equation.
• Stiochiometry – 화학양론
Stoichiometry

An Example of a Stoichiometric Calculation
• How many grams of water can be produced

from 1.00 g of glucose?
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
• There is 1.00 g of glucose to start.
• The first step is to convert it to moles.
Stoichiometry

• The new calculation is to convert moles of one

substance in the equation to moles of another
substance.
• The mole ratio comes from the coefficients in the
balanced equation.
Stoichiometry

• In the last step, moles of water is converted

to grams of water.
• This gives the answer we wanted.
• You can do each step separately OR you can
do them in one calculation, as seen above.
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.16 Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products
Determine how many grams of water are produced in the oxidation of 1.00 g of glucose, C 6H12O6:
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
Solution
Analyze We are given the mass of a reactant and must determine the mass of a product in the given reaction.
Plan We follow the general strategy outlined in Figure 3.16:

(1) Convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles using the molar mass of C6H12O6.
(2) Convert moles of C6H12O6 to moles of H2O using the stoichiometric relationship 1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol H2O.
(3) Convert moles of H2O to grams using the molar mass of H2O.
Solve
(1) First we convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles using the molar mass of C6H12O6.
Stoichiometry

(2) Next we convert moles of C6H12O6 to moles of H2O using the stoichiometric relationship
1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol H2O.
(3) Finally, we convert moles of H2O to grams using the molar mass of H2O.
Check We can check how reasonable our result is by doing a ballpark estimate of the mass of H 2O. Because the molar
mass of glucose is 180 g/mol, 1 g of glucose equals 1/180 mol. Because 1 mol of glucose yields 6 mol H 2O, we
would have 6/180 = 1/30 mol H2O. The molar mass of water is 18 g/mol, so we have 1/30 × 18 = 6/10 = 0.6 g of
H2O, which agrees with the full calculation. The units, grams H2O, are correct. The initial data had three
significant figures, so three significant figures for the answer is correct. Stoichiometry

Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove the carbon dioxide gas exhaled by astronauts. The
hydroxide reacts with the carbon dioxide to form solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. How many grams of
carbon dioxide can be absorbed by 1.00 g of lithium hydroxide?
Solution
Analyze We are given a verbal description of a reaction and asked to calculate the number of grams of one
reactant that reacts with 1.00 g of another.
Plan The verbal description of the reaction can be used to write a balanced equation:
2 LiOH(s) + CO2(g) Li2CO3(s) + H2O(l)
We are given the mass in grams of LiOH and asked to calculate the mass in grams of CO 2. We can accomplish
this with the three conversion steps in Figure 3.16. The conversion of Step 1 requires the molar mass of LiOH
6.94 + 16.00 + 1.01 = 23.95 g/mol). The conversion of Step 2 is based on a stoichiometric relationship from the
balanced chemical equation: 2 mol LiOH 1mol CO2. For the Step 3 conversion, we use the molar mass of
CO2 : 12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01 g/mol.
Solve
Stoichiometry

Heat and Stoichiometry
• Heat does NOT appear in a balanced equation.
• However, in Chapter 5 we will see how amounts
of heat are related to a balanced equation.
• Those amounts depend on stoichiometry as
well.
Stoichiometry

Limiting Reactants
• It is not necessary to have all reactants present

in stoichiometric amounts.
• Often, one or more reactants is present in
excess.
• Therefore, at the end of reaction those reactants
present in excess will still be in the reaction
mixture.
Stoichiometry

Limiting Reactants
• The limiting reactant is the reactant present in
the smallest stoichiometric amount.
– In other words, it is the reactant you will run
out of first (in this case, the H2).
• In the example below, the O2 would be the
excess reagent.
Stoichiometry

Limiting Reactants
• The limiting reactant is used in all stoichiometry
calculations to determine amounts of products
that are produced and amounts of any other
reactant(s) that are used in a reaction.
limiting reactant excess reagent
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.18 Calculating the Amount of Product
Formed from a Limiting Reactant
The most important commercial process for converting N2 from the air into nitrogen-containing compounds is
based on the reaction of N2 and H2 to form ammonia (NH3):
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
How many moles of NH3 can be formed from 3.0 mol of N2 and 6.0 mol of H2?
Solution
Analyze We are asked to calculate the number of moles of product, NH3, given the quantities of each reactant, N2
and H2, available in a reaction. This is a limiting reactant problem.
Plan If we assume one reactant is completely consumed, we can calculate how much of the second reactant is
needed. By comparing the calculated quantity of the second reactant with the amount available, we can
determine which reactant is limiting. We then proceed with the calculation, using the quantity of the limiting
reactant.
Solve The number of moles of H2 needed for complete consumption of 3.0 mol of N2 is
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.18 Calculating the Amount of Product
Formed from a Limiting Reactant
Because only 6.0 mol H2 is available, we will run out of H2 before the N2 is gone, which tells us that H2 is the
limiting reactant. Therefore, we use the quantity of H2 to calculate the quantity of NH3 produced:
Notice that we can calculate not only the number of moles of NH3 formed but also the number of moles of each
reactant remaining after the reaction. Notice also that although the initial (before) number of moles of H 2 is greater
than the final (after) number of moles of N2, H2 is nevertheless the limiting reactant because of its larger coefficient
in the balanced equation.
Check Examine the change row of the summary table to see that the mole ratio of reactants consumed and product
formed, 2:6:4, is a multiple of the coefficients in the balanced equation, 1:3:2. We confirm that H 2 is the limiting
reactant because it is completely consumed in the reaction, leaving 0 mol at the end. Because 6.0 mol H 2 has two
significant figures, our answer has two significant figures.
Comment It is useful to summarize the

reaction data in a table:
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.19 Calculating the Amount of Product Formed
from a Limiting Reactant
The reaction
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
is used to produce electricity in a hydrogen fuel cell. Suppose a fuel cell contains 150 g of H 2(g) and 1500 g
of O2(g) (each measured to two significant figures). How many grams of water can form?
Solution
Analyze We are asked to calculate the amount of a product, given the amounts of two reactants, so this is a
limiting reactant problem.
Plan To identify the limiting reactant, we can calculate the number of moles of each reactant and compare their
ratio with the ratio of coefficients in the balanced equation. We then use the quantity of the limiting reactant
to calculate the mass of water that forms.
Solve From the balanced equation, we have the stoichiometric relations
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.19 Calculating the Amount of Product Formed
from a Limiting Reactant
Using the molar mass of each substance, we calculate the number of moles of each reactant:
The coefficients in the balanced equation indicate that the reaction requires 2 mol of H 2 for every 1 mol of O2.
Therefore, for all the O2 to completely react, we would need 2 × 47 = 94 mol of H2. Since there are only 74 mol of
H2, all of the O2 cannot react, so it is the excess reactant, and H2 must be the limiting reactant. (Notice that the
limiting reactant is not necessarily the one present in the lowest amount.)
We use the given quantity of H2 (the limiting reactant) to calculate the quantity of water formed. We could begin
this calculation with the given H2 mass, 150 g, but we can save a step by starting with the moles of H2, 74 mol, we
just calculated:
Stoichiometry

Theoretical Yield
• The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of

product that can be made.
– In other words, it is the amount of product possible as
calculated through the stoichiometry problem.
• This is different from the actual yield, which is
the amount one actually produces and
measures.
Stoichiometry

Percent Yield
• One finds the percent yield by comparing the

amount actually obtained (actual yield) to the
amount it was possible to make (theoretical
yield):
actual yield
Percent yield = × 100
theoretical yield
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.20 Calculating Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
Adipic acid, H2C6H8O4, used to produce nylon, is made commercially by a reaction between cyclohexane (C 6H12)
and O2:
2 C6H12 (l) + 5 O2(g) 2 H2C6H8O4(l) + 2 H2O(g)
(a) Assume that you carry out this reaction with 25.0 g of cyclohexane and that cyclohexane is the limiting reactant.
What is the theoretical yield of adipic acid? (b) If you obtain 33.5 g of adipic acid, what is the percent yield for the
reaction?
Solution
Analyze We are given a chemical equation and the quantity of the limiting reactant (25.0 g of C6H12). We are asked
to calculate the theoretical yield of a product H2C6H8O4 and the percent yield if only 33.5 g of product is obtained.
Plan
(a) The theoretical yield, which is the calculated quantity of adipic acid formed, can be calculated using the
sequence of conversions shown in Figure 3.16.
(b) The percent yield is calculated by using Equation 3.14 to compare the given actual yield (33.5 g) with the
theoretical yield.
Solve
(a) The theoretical yield is:
Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.20 Calculating Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
(b) The percent yield is:
Check We can check our answer in (a) by doing a ballpark calculation. From the balanced equation we know that
each mole of cyclohexane gives 1 mol adipic acid. We have 25/84 ≈ 25/75 = 0.3 mol hexane, so we expect 0.3
mol adipic acid, which equals about 0.3 × 150 = 45 g, about the same magnitude as the 43.5 g obtained in the
more detailed calculation given previously. In addition, our answer has the appropriate units and number of
significant figures. In (b) the answer is less than 100%, as it must be from the definition of percent yield.
Practice Exercise 1
If 3.00 g of titanium metal is reacted with 6.00 g of chlorine gas, Cl2, to form 7.7 g of titanium(IV) chloride in a
combination reaction, what is the percent yield of the product?
(a) 65% (b) 96% (c) 48% (d) 86%
Practice Exercise 2
Imagine you are working on ways to improve the process by which iron ore containing Fe 2O3 is converted into iron:
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)
(a) If you start with 150 g of Fe2O3 as the limiting reactant, what is the theoretical yield of Fe?
(b) If your actual yield is 87.9 g, what is the percent yield?
Stoichiometry

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Lecture Presentation

“We may lay it down as an

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• Hydrogen and oxygen can make water OR hydrogen

The states of matter for the reactants and products

Other symbols can be used to represent conditions

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(b) The unbalanced chemical equation is O2 + NO NO2 (unbalanced)

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Na(s) + 2H2O (l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Na(s) + 2H2O (l) 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2 Na(s) + 2H2O (l) 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

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__CH4(g) + __ Br2(l) __ CBr4 (s) + __ HBr(g)

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• In a combination reaction, two or more

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CaCO3(s) Δ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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2 Li(s) + F2(g) 2 LiF(s)

BaCO3(s) BaO(s) + CO2 (g)

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• Combustion reactions are

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• When burning compounds with C and H in them,

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

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CH3OH(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)

CH3OH(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

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2 CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

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• If the substance is a molecule, the formula weight

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One can find the percentage of the mass of a

(number of atoms)(atomic weight)

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So the percentage of carbon in glucose is:

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• In a lab, we cannot work

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Moles C6H12O6 molecules C6H12O6 atoms H

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Solve Our first step is to determine the formula weight of glucose:

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• One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains Avogadro’s

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• Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to the

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CH4(g) + Br2(l) CBr4 (s) + HBr(g)