Fundamentals of

Microwaves
&
Satellite Technologies
 Electromagnetic Waves
 These are waves created by the interaction of
vibrating electric and magnetic fields are known as
electromagnetic waves.
 An oscillating electric and magnetic field makes up
EM waves.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection
of frequencies, wavelengths, and photon
energies of electromagnetic waves spanning
from 1Hz to 1025Hz.
 The electromagnetic spectrum can thus be
described as the range of all types of
electromagnetic radiation in basic terms. In a
vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at
the same speed as light.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Microwaves
 Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose
frequencies range from about 300 MHz – 300
GHz (1MHz = 106 Hz and 1GHz = 109 Hz) or
wavelengths in air ranging from 100 cm – 1mm.
 The word Microwave means very short wave,
which is the shortest wavelength region of the
radio spectrum and a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 Microwaves
 Microwaves frequency is further categorized
into frequency bands: L (1-2 GHz), S (2-4
GHz), C (4-8 GHz), X (8-12 GHz)
 Receivers need an unobstructed view of the
sender to successfully receive microwaves
 Microwaves are ideal when large areas need to
be covered and there are no obstacles in the
path, needs a clear line of sight (LOS)
 Properties of Microwaves
 Microwave is an electromagnetic radiation of short
wavelength.
 They can reflect by conducting surfaces just like
optical waves since they travel in straight line.
 Microwave currents flow through a thin outer layer
of an ordinary cable.
 Microwaves are easily attenuated within short
distances.
 They are not reflected by ionosphere
 Advantages of Microwaves
 Increased bandwidth availability - Microwaves
have large bandwidths compared to the
common bands like short waves (SW),
ultrahigh frequency (UHF) waves, etc.
 Improved directive properties - microwaves
have ability to use high gain directive antennas,
any EM wave can be focused in a specified
direction (Just as the focusing of light rays with
lenses or reflectors)
 Advantages of Microwaves
 Power requirements – Transmitter and receiver
power requirements are pretty low at microwave
frequencies compared to that at short wave band.
 Fading effect and reliability - Fading effect due to
the variation in the transmission medium is more
effective at low frequency. Due to the Line of Sight
(LOS) propagation and high frequencies, there is
less fading effect and hence microwave
communication is more reliable.
 Advantages of Microwaves over Radio
waves
 Because of high frequency, more data can be
sent through microwaves hence increased
bandwidth (High speed)
 Because of their short wavelength, microwaves
use smaller antennas
 Smaller antennas produce a more focused beam
which is difficult to intercept
 Microwave Impairments/ weakness

 Very expensive equipment, antenna, and

waveguide and hence the cost of implementing
the communication infrastructure is high
 Fading and distortion from multipath reflections
 microwaves are susceptible to rain, snow,
electromagnetic interference
 Interference from other frequencies
 Microwave Engineering
Considerations

 Free space &  Skin affect

atmospheric  Line of Sight
attenuation (LOS)
 Reflections  Fading
 Diffractions  Range
 Rain attenuation  Interference
 Free Space & Atmospheric
Attenuation
 Free space & atmospheric attenuation is
defined by the loss the signal undergoes
traveling through the atmosphere.
 Changes in air density and absorption by
atmospheric particles.
 Reflections
 Reflections can occur as the microwave
signal traverses a body of water or fog
bank; cause multipath conditions
 Diffraction
 Diffraction is the result of variations in
the terrain the signal crosses
 Rain Attenuation
 Raindrop absorption or scattering of the
microwave signal can cause signal loss
in transmissions.
 Skin Affect
 Skin Affect is the concept that high
frequency energy travels only on the
outside skin of a conductor and does
not penetrate into it any great distance.
Skin Affect determines the properties of
microwave signals.
 Line of Sight
Fresnel Zone Clearance
 Fresnel Zone Clearance is the minimum
clearance over obstacles that the signal
needs to be sent over. Reflection or
path bending will occur if the clearance
is not sufficient.
 LOS & FZC-cont’d
Fresnel Zone

D2

D1
D1 X D2
72.2
FxD
secret formula
 Microwave Fading
Normal Signal

Reflective Path

Caused by multi-path reflections and heavy rains

 Range
 The distance a signal travels and its
increase in frequency are inversely
proportional
 Repeaters extend range
 Back-to-back antennas

 Reflectors
 Range-cont’d
 High frequencies are repeated/received
at or below one mile
 Lower frequencies can travel up to 100
miles but 25-30 miles is the typical
placement for repeaters
 Interference
 Adjacent Channel Interference
 digital signals are not greatly affected
 Overreach
 caused by signal feeding past a repeater to
the receiving antenna at the next station in
the route. Eliminated by zigzag path
alignment or alternate frequency use
between adjacent stations
Components of a Microwave
System

 Digital Modem
 Radio Frequency (RF) Unit
 Antenna
 Digital Modem
 The digital modem modulates the
information signal (intermediate
frequency or IF).
 RF Unit
 IF is fed to the RF unit which is
mounted as close physically to the
antenna as possible (direct connect is
optimal).
 Antenna
 The antenna is a passive device that
radiates the modulated signal. It is fed
by direct connect of the RF unit, coaxial
cable, or waveguides at higher
frequencies.
 Waveguides

Waveguides are hollow channels of

low-loss material used to direct the
signal from the RF unit to the
antenna.
 Modulation Methods
 Primarily modulated today with digital
FM or AM signals
 Digital signal remains quiet until failure
threshold bit error rate renders it unusable
 Bit Error Rate (BER)
 The BER is a performance measure of
microwave signaling throughput
 10 or one error per million transmitted bits
-6of information
 Data fail over is at 10; voice traffic can

withstand this error-3rate

 Diversity
 In telecommunications, a diversity
scheme refers to a method for improving the
reliability of a message signal by using two or
more communication channels with different
characteristics.
 Diversity is mainly used in radio
communication and is a common technique
for combatting fading and co-channel
interference and avoiding error bursts.
 Diversity
 It is based on the fact that individual
channels experience different levels of
fading and interference.
 Multiple versions of the same signal may
be transmitted and/or received and
combined in the receiver.
 Alternatively, a redundant forward error
correction code may be added and
different parts of the message transmitted
over different channels.
 Microwave Applications
 In communications between satellites and base stations, GPS,
as backbone carriers for cellular systems i.e.
microwave/satellite links
 Telecommunications, in linking remote and regional telephone
exchanges to larger (main) exchanges without the need for
copper/optical fiber lines.
 Remote sensing:
 Radar (active remote sensing - radiate and receive)
 Military applications (target tracking)
 Weather radar Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
 Agricultural applications
 Radiometry (passive remote sensing - receive inherent
emissions)
 Radio astronomy
 Microwave Applications
 Industrial and home applications :
 Cooking, drying, heating
 Microwave spectroscopy - molecular properties of
materials can be determined by passing microwaves
through a sample of the material and measuring the
absorption spectrum.
Satellite Communications
 A satellite is a body that moves around another
body in a mathematically predictable path called
an Orbit.
 A communication satellite is nothing but a
microwave repeater station in space that is helpful
in telecommunications, radio, and television
along with internet applications.
Satellite Communications
 A repeater is a circuit which increases the strength
of the signal it receives and retransmits it.
 But in satellite communication this repeater works as
a transponder
 Transponder changes the frequency band of the
transmitted signal, from the received one.
Satellite Communications
 Satellite-Related Terms
 Earth Stations – antenna systems on or near earth
 Uplink – transmission from an earth station to a
satellite
 Downlink – transmission from a satellite to an
earth station
 Transponder – electronics in the satellite that
convert uplink signals to downlink signals
 Ways to Categorize
Communications Satellites
 Coverage area
 Global, regional, national
 Service type
 Fixed service satellite (FSS)
 Broadcast service satellite (BSS)
 Mobile service satellite (MSS)
 General usage
 Commercial, military, amateur, experimental
Classification of Satellite Orbits
 Circular or elliptical orbit
 Circular with center at earth’s center
 Elliptical with one foci at earth’s center
 Orbit around earth in different planes
 Equatorial orbit above earth’s equator
 Polar orbit passes over both poles
 Other orbits referred to as inclined orbits
 Altitude of satellites
 Geostationary orbit (GEO)
 Medium earth orbit (MEO)
 Low earth orbit (LEO)
Geometry Terms
 Elevation angle - the angle from the
horizontal to the point on the center of the
main beam of the antenna when the antenna
is pointed directly at the satellite
 Minimum elevation angle
 Coverage angle - the measure of the portion
of the earth's surface visible to the satellite
Minimum Elevation Angle
 Reasons affecting minimum elevation angle
of earth station’s antenna (>0o)
 Buildings, trees, and other terrestrial objects
block the line of sight
 Atmospheric attenuation is greater at low
elevation angles
 Electrical noise generated by the earth's heat
near its surface adversely affects reception
 GEO Orbit
 Advantages of the the GEO orbit
 No problem with frequency changes
 Tracking of the satellite is simplified
 High coverage area
 Disadvantages of the GEO orbit
 Weak signal after traveling over 35,000 km
 Polar regions are poorly served
 Signal sending delay is substantial

GEO : Geosynchronous equatorial orbit

 LEO Satellite Characteristics
 Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
 Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
 Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
 Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20
ms
 Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
 System must cope with large Doppler shifts
 Atmospheric drag results in orbital deterioration

LEO : Low earth orbit

LEO Categories
 Little LEOs
 Frequencies below 1 GHz
 5MHz of bandwidth
 Data rates up to 10 kbps
 Aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging
 Big LEOs
 Frequencies above 1 GHz
 Support data rates up to a few megabits per sec
 Offer same services as little LEOs in addition to voice
and positioning services
 MEO Satellite Characteristics
 Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to
12,000 km
 Orbit period of 6 hours
 Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
 Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50
ms
 Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours

MEO : Medium Earth Orbit

Satellite Systems
GEO GEO (22,300 mi., equatorial)
high bandwidth, power, latency
MEO
M EO
high bandwidth, power, latency
LEO LEO (400 mi.)
low power, latency
more satellites
small footprint
V-SAT (Very Small Aperture
Terminal)
private WAN
SATELLITE MAP

SOURCE: WASHINGTON UNIV.

Geostationary Orbit

SOURCE: BILL LUTHER, FCC

GPS Satellite Constellation
• Global Positioning
System
• Operated by USAF
• 28 satellites
• 6 orbital planes at a
height of 20,200 km
• Positioned so a
minimum of 5
satellites
are visible at all times
• Receiver measures
distance to SOURCE:
satellite
NAVSTAR
Frequency Bands Available for
Satellite Communications
Satellite Link Performance Factors
 Distance between earth station antenna and
satellite antenna
 For downlink, terrestrial distance between earth
station antenna and “aim point” of satellite
 Displayed as a satellite footprint (Figure 9.6)
 Atmospheric attenuation
 Affected by oxygen, water, angle of elevation, and
higher frequencies
Satellite Footprint
Satellite Network Configurations
Advantages of Satellite Communication
 Flexibility
 Ease in installing new circuits
 Distances are easily covered and cost
doesn’t matter
 Broadcasting possibilities
 Each and every corner of earth is
covered
 User can control the network
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
 The initial costs such as segment and
launch costs are too high.
 Congestion of frequencies
 Interference and propagation