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M269 Lec11

The document provides an overview of propositional logic, predicate logic, and Turing machines. It discusses: 1) The basic concepts of propositional logic including symbols, connectives like OR and AND, and propositional syntax. 2) It introduces first-order logic and provides a video link to understand predicate logic. 3) It describes Turing machines as consisting of an infinite tape and head that can read/write symbols and change state based on transition functions. Examples of simple Turing machines are given. 4) Turing's thesis is discussed, stating that any problem that can be solved by an algorithm can be modeled by a Turing machine. The halting problem is also introduced.

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74 views29 pages

M269 Lec11

The document provides an overview of propositional logic, predicate logic, and Turing machines. It discusses: 1) The basic concepts of propositional logic including symbols, connectives like OR and AND, and propositional syntax. 2) It introduces first-order logic and provides a video link to understand predicate logic. 3) It describes Turing machines as consisting of an infinite tape and head that can read/write symbols and change state based on transition functions. Examples of simple Turing machines are given. 4) Turing's thesis is discussed, stating that any problem that can be solved by an algorithm can be modeled by a Turing machine. The halting problem is also introduced.

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Lec 11

M269
Algorithms, Data Structures
and Computability
BY:
DR. AHMED GAWISH
[email protected]
Agenda
1] Prepositional Logic and Predicate Logic.
2] Turing Machine
3] Computability and Limits of Computation
Logic in Computer Science
• Logic has a profound impact on computer-science. Some
examples:
• Propositional logic – the foundation of computers and circuitry
• Databases – query languages
• Programming languages (e.g. prolog) • Propositional Logic
• Design Validation and verification • First Order Logic
• AI (e.g. inference systems) • Higher Order Logic
• ... • Temporal Logic
3
Propositional logic: Syntax
A proposition – a sentence that can be either true or false.

• The symbols of the language:


• Propositional symbols (Prop): A, B, C,…

• Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are −
o OR (∨)
o AND (∧)
o Negation/ NOT (¬)
o Implication / if-then (→)
o If and only if (⇔).
4
OR (∨) − The OR operation of two AND (∧) − The AND operation of two
propositions A and B (written as A∨B) is propositions A and B (written as A∧B) is
true if at least any of the propositional true if both the propositional variable A
variable A or B is true. and B is true.

Negation (¬) − The negation of a Implication / if-then (→) − An


proposition A (written as ¬A) is false when implication A→B is the proposition “if A,
A is true and is true when A is false. then B”. It is false if A is true and B is false.
The rest cases are true.
If and only if (⇔) − A⇔B is bi-conditional
logical connective which is true when p and q
are same, i.e. both are false or both are true.
First Order Logic
To understand the predicate logic, please
see the following video:
Introduction to
Turing Machines
Before going into this topic, please see the following videos: idea
Intro: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDc6Gfo3egk
Idea: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ZS_zFg4w5k

0 0
1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
The Turing Machine

0 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

A TM consists of an infinite length tape, on which


input is provided as a finite sequence of symbols.

A head reads the input tape. The TM starts at start


state s0. On reading an input symbol it optionally
replaces it with another symbol, changes its
internal state and moves one cell to the right or left.
The Turing Machine

A TM is defined as:
TM = <S, T, s0, d, H> where,

S is a set of TM states
T is a set of tape symbols
s0 is the start state
HS is a set of halting states
d : S x T S x T x {L,R}
is the transition function
Simple TM Examples
Turing Machine U+1:

Given a string of 1s on a tape (followed by


an infinite number of 0s), add one more 1 at the
end of the string.

#111100000000…….

#1111100000000……….
Simple TM Examples

TM: U+1
d(s0, 1) |-- (s0, 1, R)
d(s0, 0) |-- (h, 1, STOP)
#s0111100000….. 
#1s011100000….. 
#11s01100000….. 
#111s0100000….. 
#1111s000000….. 
#11111h0000….. STOP
Exercice
state symbol Δ(state, Solution
symbol)
S0 b (halt, a, stop) • s0 “ aaaabb”
S0 a (S1 , a, right ) • s1 “ aaaabb ”
S1 b (halt, b, stop) • s0 “ aaaabb ”
S1 a (S0 , a, right ) • s1 “ aaaabb ”
Input = “aaaabb” • s1 “ aaaabb ”
What is the output for this input? • halt “ aaaaab ”

• Input = a finite sequence of “a” symbol, followed by an infinite sequence of “b”.


• Describe what the output this machine generates.
Turing’s Thesis
Any mathematical problem solving that
can be described by a mechanical procedure
(algorithm) can be modeled by a
Turing machine.

All computers today perform only mechanical


problem solving. They are no more expressive
than a Turing machine.
Halting Problem

The Halting problem


Given a program and an input to the program, determine if the given program
will eventually stop with this particular input.
If the program doesn’t stop, then it is in an infinite loop and this problem is
unsolvable

22
Turing’s Thesis

• Turing’s thesis is not a “theorem” there is no “proof” for the thesis.


• The theorem may be refuted by showing at least one task that is
performed by a digital computer which cannot be performed by a
Turing machine.
• Many contentions have been made to this end. However, till date
there have not been any conclusive evidence to refute Turing’s thesis.
The Turing Machine
Conclusions

• Turing machines are a minimal extension over PDAs which


provide greater expressiveness.
• TMs are at a level that is much below the assembly language of
any typical microprocessor.
• So in the practical world, TMs are more useful in what they
cannot do rather than in what they can.
Computability and Limits of Computation
Examples of Limitations:

• Limits on Arithmetic
• Limits on Components
• Limits on Communications

25
Limits on Arithmetic
There are limitations imposed by the hardware on the representations
of both integer numbers and real numbers. The maximum number of
significant digits that can be represented is limited to a certain value.

Significant digits
Those digits that begin with the first nonzero digit on the left and end
with the last nonzero digit on the right
Limits on Components
Although most errors are caused by software, hardware
components do fail

Limits on Communications
Error-detecting codes
Techniques to determine if an error has occurred during the
transmission of data and then alert the system
Error-correcting codes
Error-detecting codes that detect an error has occurred and try to 27

determine the correct value


Limits of Software
Commercial software contains errors
• Software testing can demonstrate the presence of bugs but cannot
demonstrate their absence
• As we find problems and fix them, we raise our confidence that
the software performs as it should
• But we can never guarantee that all bugs have been removed

28
Thank You

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