The open system Interconnection

(OSI) reference model

O The OSI reference model represents the seven layers

of the process by which data is packaged and
transmitted from a sending application through the
physical wires to the receiving application.
Network Communications
O Network activity involves sending data from one
computer to another. This complex process can be
broken into discrete, sequential tasks.
O The sending computer must:
O Recognize the data.
O Divide the data into manageable chunks.
O Add information to each chunk of data to determine
the location of the data and to identify the receiver.
O Add timing and error-checking information.
O Put the data on the network and send it on its way.
A Layered Architecture
O The OSI reference model architecture divides
network communication into seven layers. Each
layer covers different network activities,
equipment, or protocols.
O The OSI reference model defines how each layer
communicates and works with the layers
immediately above and below it.
O For example, the session layer communicates and
works with the presentation and transport layers.
O The seven layers of the OSI reference model
from highest to lowest layers are:
7. Application layer
6;. Presentation layer
5. Session layer
4. Transport layer
3. Network layer
2. Data link layer
1. Physical layer
O Each layer provides some service or action that
prepares the data for delivery over the network to
another computer.
O The lowest layers—1 and 2—define the network's
physical media and related tasks, such as putting data
bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable.
O The highest layers define how applications access
communication services. The higher the layer, the
more complex its task is.
 
Figure 15. Relationships among OSI Reference Model Layers
O Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is
broken down into packets, or units of information,
which are transmitted as a whole from one device to
another on a network.
O The network passes a packet from one software layer
to another in the same order as that of the layers.
O At each layer, the software adds additional formatting
or addressing to the packet, which is needed for the
packet to be successfully transmitted across the
network.
O Information on the sending computer must be
passed down through each successive layer
until it reaches the physical layer.
O The information then moves across the
networking cable to the receiving computer
and up that computer's networking layers until
it arrives at the corresponding layer.
O For example, when the network layer sends
information from computer A,
the information moves down through the data-link
and physical layers on the sending side, over the
cable,
and up the physical and data-link layers on the
receiving side to its final destination at the network
layer on computer B.
Application Layer
O Layer 7, the top most layer of the OSI reference
model, is the application layer.
O This layer relates to the services that directly support
user applications, such as software for file transfers,
database access, and e-mail.
O A message to be sent across the network enters the
OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI
reference model's application layer on the receiving
computer.
O Application-layer protocols can be programs
in themselves, such as :
O File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
O Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
used by most e-mail programs, to redirect
data to the network.
 Presentation Layer
O Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format
used to exchange data among networked computers.
O When computers from dissimilar systems—such as
IBM, Apple, and Sun—need to communicate, a
certain amount of translation and byte reordering
must be done.
O Within the sending computer, the presentation layer
translates data from the format sent down from the
application layer into a commonly recognized,
intermediary format.
O At the receiving computer, this layer translates
the intermediary format into a format that can
be useful to that computer's application layer.
O Responsible for converting protocols,
translating data, encryption and decryption ,
compression and decompression
 Session Layer
O Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on
different computers to open, use, and close a
connection called a session.
O A session is a highly structured dialog between two
workstations.
O The session layer is responsible for managing this
dialog. It performs name-recognition and other
functions, such as security, that are needed to allow
two applications to communicate over the network.
O It synchronizes user tasks
O It implement dialog control between
communicating process, such as regulating
which side transmits, when and for how long
 Transport Layer
O Layer 4, the transport layer, provides an
additional connection level beneath the session
layer.
O The transport layer ensures that packets are
delivered error free, in sequence, and without
losses or duplications.
O At the sending computer, this layer repackages
messages, dividing long messages into several
packets and collecting small packets together in
one package.
O At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens
the packets, reassembles the original messages, and,
typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message
was received.
O If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize
the duplicate and discard it.
O The transport layer provides flow control and error
handling, and participates in solving problems
concerned with the transmission and reception of
packets.
O Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced
Packet Exchange (SPX) are examples of transport-
layer protocols.
 Network Layer
O Layer 3, the network layer, is responsible for
addressing messages and translating logical
addresses and names into physical addresses.
O This layer also determines the route from the
source to the destination computer.
O It determines which path the data should take
based on network conditions, priority of
service, and other factors.
O If the network adapter on the router cannot
transmit a data chunk as large as the source
computer sends, the network layer on the
router compensates by breaking the data into
smaller units.
O Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet
Exchange (IPX) are examples of network-
layer protocols.
 Data-Link Layer
O Layer 2, the data-link layer, sends data frames
from the network layer to the physical layer.
O It controls the electrical impulses that enter
and leave the network cable.
O On the receiving end, the data-link layer
packages raw bits from the physical layer into
data frames. (A data frame is an organized,
logical structure in which data can be placed.
O The electrical representation of the data (bit
patterns, encoding methods, and tokens) is
known to this layer only.
O The data-link layer is responsible for
providing error-free transfer of these frames
from one computer to another through the
physical layer.
O The bellow Figure shows a simple data frame.
O In this example, the sender ID represents the address of the
computer that is sending the information; the destination
ID represents the address of the computer to which the
information is being sent.
O The control information is used for frame type, routing,
and segmentation information.
O The data is the information itself.
O The cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides error
correction and verification information to ensure that the
data frame is received correctly.
Figure 16. Relation b/n sender and receiver in data link layer
 Physical Layer
O Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model,
is the physical layer.
O This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream
over a physical medium (such as the network cable).
O The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and
deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining
a physical link between communicating computers.
The physical layer also carries the signals that
transmit data generated by each of the higher layers.
O This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC.
For example, it defines how many pins the connector
has and the function of each.
O It also defines which transmission technique will be
used to send data over the network cable.
O The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits
(zeros and ones) from one computer to another,
ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is
received as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit
O It defines how each bit is translated into the appropriate
electrical or optical impulse for the network cable.
O This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer."
Although the rest of the layers can be implemented as
firmware (chip-level functions on the NIC), rather than
actual software, the other layers are software in relation
to this first layer.
O LLC—The LLC sub layer, which is defined by the
IEEE 802.2 standard, controls the access of the media,
enabling multiple high-level protocols to use a single
network link.
O MAC—The MAC sub layer manages and controls
access to the network media for the protocols trying to
use it. The MAC address is defined at this sub layer.
 Data Packets and the OSI
Reference Model
O Data packets are assembled and disassembled
according to the OSI reference model.
O The packet-creation process begins at the
application layer of the OSI reference model,
where the data is generated.
O Information to be sent across the network starts at
the application layer and descends through all
seven layers.