7.

Coal Preparation
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Coal preparation can be defined as the processing of coal after it is mined (i.e., run-of-mine [ROM] material) to
produce an end product that meets the specifications set forth by the customer. Coal preparation acts as the bridge
between coal mining and coal utilization (e.g., combustion, coke production). In some cases, coal preparation may
consist of a crushing/sizing operation to produce the desired size fractions. The product in this case is designated raw
coal and can often be utilized directly. Coal production facilities in the Powder River basin often employ this level of
coal preparation. On the other hand, the raw coal may be sized into specific size fractions prior to being cleaned using
one of several concentrating operations. This approach is typical for cleaning bituminous coal.
Coal preparation processes are able to remove certain impurities such as mine rock easily and others such as shale
and pyritic sulfur with somewhat more difficulty. Other contaminants such as organic sulfur cannot be removed by
conventional coal preparation but must be handled by the customer. For example, sulfur dioxide, which is created
during the combustion of coal containing organic and pyritic (inorganic) sulfur, can be removed using flue-gas
desulfurization. In addition to the ash and sulfur values, other concerns with coal from a utilization perspective include,
for example, heating content, moisture content, and trace elements (e.g., arsenic, mercury). Because other areas of
concern can be dealt with adequately via coal preparation, it plays a key role in coal utilization.
It is the responsibility of the coal preparation engineer to develop a process flowsheet by manipulating the
arrangement of the unit operations such that the raw coal is converted into a marketable product. This requires
knowledge of the raw coal properties as they relate to particle behavior during processing to develop the circuitry that
will do the job most economically. This chapter presents an overview of the major coal preparation unit operations,
with a focus on those used in current U.S. coal cleaning facilities, along with techniques to characterize the coal and to
evaluate separator performance.
7. Coal Preparation
7.1 INTRODUCTION
(1) Areas of Importance
Coal preparation can be categorized into four generic areas: characterization, liberation, separation, and disposition.
Raw coal is a very heterogeneous mixture that includes the organic components and a variety of ash-forming
minerals. Because of the variation of coal from seam to seam or within different parts of the same seam, it should be
characterized based on its physical properties, because these properties will affect how it is cleaned.
The first step of characterization involves sampling. Sampling is important whether analyzing the raw material
or when obtaining samples to evaluate separator or plant performance. The primary characterization procedure,
which is based on a particle size and specific gravity fractionation, is called a washability analysis. This technique is
used to determine the maximum yield of coal that can be expected at a particular quality (e.g., ash value).
Liberation involves size reduction of the raw coal (typically by crushing) to reduce the amount of mineral
matter that is locked to the coal particles. However, in the United States, crushing is usually limited to produce a
material with a top size that can be handled during the separation process. Overcrushing is avoided to minimize the
production of finer particles.
Because the densities of the mineral matter impurities are higher than those of the coal, separations are
primarily done on the basis of density differences. However, for ultrafine particles (e.g., <0.15 mm), separations are
made primarily on the basis of surface property differences. After separation, the clean coal and refuse fractions
must be processed further to provide a product that can be handled by the customer and a refuse that can be
disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner. This area is referred to as disposition and includes dewatering
of the product and refuse material.
7. Coal Preparation
7.1 INTRODUCTION

(2) Size Ranges of Cleaning

Because certain devices treat specific size ranges of material more effectively, the raw coal is split into several
size fractions prior to processing. The approximate size ranges of these fractions are coarse (–150+13 mm),
intermediate (–13+1 mm), fine (–1+0.15 mm), and ultrafine (–0.15 mm) (Bethell and Barbee 2007). Oversize
(+150 mm) material is crushed prior to processing. Dense-medium vessels are used to treat the –150+13 mm
material and dense-medium cyclones for the –13+1 mm material. Spiral concentrators are commonly used for
treating the –1+0.15 mm material, while froth flotation devices are used for the ultrafine material. For coals that
contain high percentages of mineral matter in the –0.044 mm fraction or because of moisture or handling
concerns, the –0.044 mm (slimes) material is removed prior to flotation.
Because the separations are made using waterbased processes, dewatering is needed to reduce the product
moisture to an acceptable level as required by the customer. This is done using screens, centrifuges, and/or filters
depending on the size range involved. Finally, the refuse material must also be dewatered to produce a handleable
material. The coarse, intermediate, and fine (typically) refuse fractions are dewatered by screening. The ultrafine
refuse is thickened by sedimentation and possibly dewatered further by filtration while the process water is
recycled. A simplified flowsheet illustrating the four coal cleaning circuits is shown in Figure 7.1.
7. Coal Preparation
7.1 INTRODUCTION
(2) Size Ranges of Cleaning
Figure 7.1 Simplified flowsheet
of four coal cleaning circuits
and typical process equipment

7.2 CHARACTERIZATION
(1) Coal Characteristics
According to various theories of
coal formation, coal is formed
from plant matter, which is
present along the edges of lakes
and in marshes (Van Krevelen
1961). The basic building block of
plant matter is cellulose, which is
composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. Plant matter also
contains smaller concentrations of
nitrogen, organic sulfur, calcite,
and trace elements.
7. Coal Preparation
7.2 CHARACTERIZATION
(1) Coal Characteristics
When plants die and fall into the water, they become water logged and sink to the bottom and eventually
decompose. The decomposition takes place under anaerobic conditions in the presence of bacteria. Over time, this
decay transforms the plant matter into peat, which has physical and chemical properties that are different from the
original plant matter. During this process, soil and clay often become incorporated in the plant matter or peat. The
structural form of the peat is determined by the presence of water, oxygen, minerals, and bacterial activity.
Biological, chemical, and geophysical processes impact the formation of the coal.
The typical specific gravities of coal and its common inorganic constituents are the following: coal (1.23–1.40),
bone (high-ash) coal (1.6–2.0), carbonaceous shale (2.0–2.6), gypsum (2.3), shale (2.6), clay (2.6), sandstone
(2.6), calcite (2.7), and pyrite (5.0). Consequently, the common concentrating processes that separate the
inorganic constituents from coal exploit these specific gravity differences while the particles move through a fluid
medium. The removal of the inorganic constituents is achieved by combining knowledge of the behavior of raw
coal particles during processing and how these particles are concentrated in various unit operations to create the
circuitry that will eventually produce clean coal and refuse fractions.
7. Coal Preparation
7.2 CHARACTERIZATION
(2) Washability Analysis
Because coal is separated primarily based on differences in particle densities, the coal is also characterized using a
technique based on density differences. This is referred to as float-sink separation and is one part of the coal
characterization technique referred to as a washability analysis. This procedure involves the systematic partitioning
of the raw coal by size and specific gravity into fractions having approximately homogeneous properties. The
resulting samples are analyzed according to the specified ASTM procedure to determine the appropriate attribute
value such as ash, total sulfur, or calorific content These data are then used to generate the washability curves, which
show the theoretical (maximum) percentage of clean coal that can be produced for a specified attribute value and at
what specific gravity the separation should be made.

The sample is partitioned into various size fractions using the appropriate screens and screening device. After
screening, the desired size fractions are subjected to a specific gravity fractionation called a float-sink analysis. In
this technique, baths of progressively denser liquids, typically mixtures of aqueous salt solutions (e.g., sodium
metatungstate, zinc chloride) or organic liquids (e.g., toluene, perchloroethylene)are used. The coal is placed into
the bath containing the lowest specific gravity liquid. The material floating is recovered, dried, and weighed, while
the sink material is removed and placed into the next higher specific gravity bath. This procedure continues until the
desired number of fractions is obtained, typically four to six (ASTM 2006). Each specific gravity fraction is then
analyzed to determine the appropriate attribute value.
7. Coal Preparation
7.2 CHARACTERIZATION
(3) Release Analysis
Ultrafine coal is usually separated using a flotation process rather than density-based processes,
which are used for the coarser size fractions. Flotation depends on differences in the surface
properties between the floatable (organic) material and the nonfloatable (inorganic) material (mineral
matter). Consequently, a flotation process is often used to determine the theoretical floatability for a
given coal. This technique is called release analysis and can be viewed as a washability procedure for
frothflotation.
The release analysis technique was developed to determine the maximum amount of material that
can be recovered for different product qualities (e.g., ash values) using flotation. Various procedures
have been used for determining this curve. In general, the coal is first floated in a laboratory
flotation cell until all coal is removed to produce a coal-free tailings material. The froth product
(concentrate) is subjected to further flotation (cleaning) steps to remove additional mineral matter.
The cleaned concentrate is then separated into different floatabilities, with the separation depending
on the procedure being used.
 7. Coal Preparation
7.2 CHARACTERIZATION
(4) Hardgrove Grindability Index
Coal grinding is not carried out in a cleaning plant but
rather at the utilization site (e.g., at the power plant Figure 7.4
prior to combustion). In this case, the coal is ground in a Hardgrove
roller-type mill to a pulverized coal grind specification grindabilit
y test unit
that might be 70% less than 0.074 mm (200 mesh).
Consequently, the coal is often characterized based on
its grindability, specifically using the Hardgrove
grindability index (HGI). The HGI test is a standard where W is the weight in grams passing 200 mesh. HGI
method for determining the relative grindability of coal values ranging from 50 to 80 are typical for bituminous
(ASTM 2006). coals, though values down to around 30 have been
For an HGI test, a 50-g sample of 16×30 U.S. mesh found for anthracite and up to 100 or so for some
coal is placed in the grinding chamber of a standard bituminous coals. The HGI is used by equipment
Hardgrove ball-and-race mill (Figure 7.4), which rotates suppliers to estimate the size of the roller mill required.
at a fixed speed and is ground for 60 revolutions. The The HGI will also provide an indication of the amount
product is then dry screened in a sieving machine, and of degradation that might occur during processing,
the amount of –200 mesh material produced is because higher HGI coals will typically degrade more,
determined. The HGI is calculated by increasing the amount of fine and ultrafine particles that
HGI =13+ 6.93W (EQ 7.2) are produced during processing.
7. Coal Preparation 1) Rotary Breaker
7.3 SIZE CONTROL The rotary breaker consists of a rotating cylindrical shell with
openings in its perimeter to match the desired top size of the
(1) Size Reduction product (Figure 7.5). The coal is fed into one end where it is lifted
Size reduction typically involves primary and then dropped onto the revolving shell, consisting of perforated
breakage to reduce the top size of the feed steel plates. The combination of the impact with the plates and the
material being processed or secondary rock breaks the coal as it moves along the length of the device.
crushing of the product material to produce a The broken coal exits through the openings, while the material that
top size as required for shipping to the did not break (e.g., rock, wood) is rejected out of the other end.
customer. Primary breakage involves reducing Consequently in addition to breakage, some coal cleaning is
the ROM material to top sizes ranging from achieved. Typical capacities for different sizes of rotary breakers
about 150 mm to perhaps 50 mm, typically and various product discharge sizes are given in Table 7.5.
using either a rotary breaker or a sizer.
Although size reduction will also liberate
additional mineral matter from the organic
material, it also produces additional fines, so
overcrushing is avoided. Secondary crushing
involves reducing the clean coal to top sizes
less than about 50 mm, typically using a
double roll crusher.

Figure 7.5 Rotary breaker indicating material flows

 7. Coal Preparation 2) Sizers
7.3 SIZE CONTROL A sizer consists of two toothed rolls, rotating either
toward or away from each other (Figure 7.6). Oversize
(1) Size Reduction 1) Rotary Breaker
material is grabbed by the teeth, which shear the
Table 7.5 Rotary breaker approximate capacities* (in stph) particles promoting breakage along fracture planes.
The slow speed of the rolls minimizes fines and dust
generation while fine material passes between or
around the rolls, reducing the generation of additional
fines. The configuration of the teeth depends on the
application and desired product size. These units can
be used for either primary breakage or secondary
crushing. Sizer capacity depends on machine
characteristics such as the diameter and length of the
rolls, on the discharge setting, and on the
characteristics of the feed coal. Typical capacities for
several sizers and product sizes are given in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6 Sizer approximate capacities* (in stph)
*Capacities are based on 50 lb/ft3 material
passing the holes.

*Capacities are based on 50 lb/ft3 average

friable material.
7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
3) Roll Crushers
(1) Size Reduction 2) Sizers
In a double roll crusher, the coal is passed
between two rolls, which rotate toward
each other (Figure 7.7). As the coal passes
through the opening, it is compressed and
crushed, resulting in size reduction. The
gap setting can be adjusted to control the
product size. These units are commonly
used to reduce the top size of the clean
coal to a nominal –50 mm (2 in.) prior to
shipping. The capacity varies with
discharge setting and roll length (width).
Manufacturers will often produce units
with different roll diameters and roll
Figure 7.6 Sizer indicating particle size reduction widths. Typical capacities for various roll
widths and product sizes are given in
Table 7.7.
7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(1) Size Reduction 3) Roll Crushers Table 7.7 Rotary breaker approximate capacities* (in stph)

*Capacities are based on 18-in.-diameter rolls, ⅔ gap settings, and 50

lb/ft3 material.
Black Diamond roll diameters are available in 18, 24, 30, and 36 in.

Figure 7.7 Double roll crusher

indicating particle size reduction
7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation

Particle size separations are typically carried out using screening devices for sizes greater than about 1 mm and
classifying hydrocyclones for finer separations. Profile wire sieves are also used for sizes finer than about 1 mm.
Screening involves the separation of particles based on particles passing through an aperture (as in sieving), whereas
separations in hydrocyclones depend on the relative settling velocities of particles in water as they move in a
centrifugal field.
Screens are used for processing the ROM material to remove oversize particles prior to size reduction, for sizing
the raw coal into the appropriate size ranges prior to separation, for removal of the dense medium after separation, and
for dewatering the clean coal and refuse (Bethell and Luttrell 2004; Jain and Lovelady 2003). The screening can be
done using inclined, horizontal, or multi-slope decks. In many cases, the same type of screening device can be used in
different applications with only changes in the screen deck. Decking material includes bars/rods, punch plate, woven
wire, rubber, urethane, and profile wire. Screening performance can be affected by many factors, including solids feed
rate, percentage of feed particles close to the screen opening size (near-size particles), surface moisture of the feed
material, the ratio of particle cross-section to screen aperture size, particle shape, screen open area, blinding of screen
apertures, shape of screen apertures, and the spread of feed material on the screen.
7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation 1) Grizzly Screens

The initial screening operation is often done

using a grizzly (ROM) screen, which consists
of a heavy steel deck of either rods or bars
attached to a vibrating machine (Figure 7.8).
These units can be horizontal or mounted at an
angle and can have stepped decks. Different
screen opening sizes are used depending on
the incoming coal characteristics and plant
flowsheet. For example, grizzly screens can be
used to separate the ROM material at a coarse
size (e.g., 300 mm), with the oversize being
rejected as rock. A second deck may be used to
separate at a finer size (e.g., 150 mm), with the
300×150 mm material being sent to size
reduction. This process is known as scalping.
Figure 7.8 Vibrating grizzly screen
7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation 2) Raw Coal Screens

Raw coal sizing is commonly done using multislope vibrating screens, which are often referred to as banana screens due
to their profile (Figure 7.9). The angle of the deck decreases as the particles move toward the discharge end. The
decrease in slope slows the material flow, allowing more time for particle passage, while keeping the bed depth
approximately constant over the length of the deck. The vibrating action of the screen deck causes stratification,
allowing the fine particles to pass through the screen deck while the oversize material passes over the deck surface. The
finest material is removed quickly at the feed end or steepest part of the screen. The material that is closer to the
opening size (nearsize material) is removed farther down the screen deck.
The sizing is performed on a deck having square or slightly rectangular openings of the desired product size. Double-
deck units are commonly used. The upper deck, which is usually either steel punch plate or urethane, is used, for
example, to remove the –13 mm material. The +13 mm material is directed to the coarse coal circuit. The lower deck,
which is usually profile wire and is often chrome plated for wear protection, is used to remove the –1 mm material. The
13 mm to 1 mm material is directed to the intermediate coal circuit, and the –1 mm material goes to the fine coal circuit
for additional sizing. Water sprays are used to assist in washing the undersize material through the deck.
The factors that influence screen sizing include the amount of oversize material in the feed, the amount of fines
present, material bulk density, deck location (top versus bottom deck), wet versus dry screening, screen opening size
and shape, screen open area, and desired efficiency. Multi-slope screens typically have higher capacities compared to
conventional inclined vibrating screens of the same area.
7. Coal Preparation 3) Roller Screens
For some coals, the ash value of the intermediate and finer material may
7.3 SIZE CONTROL be low enough such that this material can be added to the clean coal
2) Raw Coal Screens product without additional cleaning. This approach avoids the problem of
(2) Size Separation
wetting and subsequent dewatering of the finer material. However, dry
screening below approximately 25 mm can be problematic, particularly for
damp material, which may plug (blind) the openings of a screen deck. One
alternative is to use roller screens, which are able to handle damp material
and eliminate the problem of screen blinding. For these units, the rotation
of the elliptical rolls facilitates the passage of the finer particles (Figure
7.10). Although the separations by these units are not as sharp as when
screening on conventional decks, they have been shown to work very well
for dry screening applications. These units are available for making
separations from 200 mm down to approximately 15 mm.

Figure 7.9 Single-deck multi-slope

(banana-style) vibrating screen

Figure 7.10 Roller screen

 7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation 4) Profile Wire Sieves
One class of fine sizing devices is the profile wire sieves. For these
devices, slurry flow is perpendicular to the slotted openings of the
profile wire. Layers of the slurry are sliced away as it moves across the
profile wire deck, with the fines and much of the water passing
through the sieve, while the oversize is discharged over the end (Figure
7.11). An advantage of these devices is that size separations are made Figure 7.11 Material flows on a sieve bend
at approximately ½ to ¾ of the slot opening, minimizing blinding of
the openings. Profile wire sieves are typically used for making
separations in the range from about 1.0 mm to 0.10 mm. Several
designs are available including flat sieves, flume sieves, and sieve
bends (Figure 7.12). They are often used to remove some of the dense-
medium slurry ahead of drain-and-rinse screens and to remove the
ultrafine material that bypasses to the underflow stream in a
classifying cyclone or that may be present in the fine clean coal
stream. The capacity of sieve bends varies with the opening size. For
example, for a feed slurry containing 20% solids (by weight), a sieve
bend with a 1.4-mm slot size can handle 50 L/s of slurry per meter
(242 gpm/ft) of screen width versus 25 L/s/m (121 gpm/ft) for a 0.5-
Figure 7.12 Sieve bend
mm slot.
 7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation 5) Stack Sizer
Another option for separating fine particles is the use of
high-frequency screens, which operate at lower
amplitudes but higher frequencies compared to
conventional vibrating screens. One device that was
developed specifically for fine particle sizing is the Stack
Sizer, which is shown in Figure 7.13. The Stack Sizer can
be set up with five decks, and each deck consists of two
1,220 mm (48 in.) wide by 762 mm (30 in.) long sections
separated by a repulp trough. Feed slurry is introduced in
thin layers with sufficient spray water to ensure passage
of the undersize material. This device has been used to
achieve separations down to 0.075 mm using urethane
decks at capacities of approximately 20 stph of feed
slurry. Capacities up to 75 stph of slurry have been
obtained when using 0.18-mm screen openings. One use
of these devices would be to treat the clean coal from the
fine coal circuit to remove fines that were not removed by Figure 7.13 Five-deck Stack Sizer screening device
the classifying hydrocyclone (i.e., apparent bypass). and drawing of the repulp troughs
 7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation 6) Classifying Hydrocyclones

Size separations below about 0.3 mm are typically done using

classifying hydrocyclones. The feed slurry (typically <10%–15%
solids by weight) enters the device tangentially under pressure near
the top, forcing the coarser particles to the cyclone wall for eventual
discharge through the cyclone underflow or apex (Figure 7.14). The
Figure 7.14 Classifying hydrocyclone
finer particles are carried inward by the fluid drag and then indicating flow patterns and components
discharged through the overflow or vortex finder along with the bulk
of the water. Pressure drops through these units are typically in the
range of 100–175 kPa (15–25 psi).
The hydrocyclone diameter is a key variable in determining both
the volumetric capacity and separation size. Smaller-diameter units
are required for finer size separations but at the expense of capacity.
To increase the capacity of the circuit, multiple hydrocyclones are
arranged in a bank and are fed from a common distributor (Figure
7.15). Other factors affecting cyclone performance include operating
pressure and sizes of the discharge openings. Discussions of
hydrocyclone sizing and operating procedures are given elsewhere.
Table 7.8 lists typical capacities for coal-classifying hydrocyclones.
Figure 7.15 Bank of classifying hydrocyclones
 7. Coal Preparation
7.3 SIZE CONTROL
(2) Size Separation 6) Classifying Hydrocyclones

Table 7.8 Coal classifying hydrocyclone approximate capacities

7.4 SEPARATION
To produce the desired product, the ash-forming minerals must be rejected from the clean coal. This processing step is
referred to as separation. As noted previously, the approximate size ranges, which involve different separators, can be
classified as coarse (150 to 13 mm), intermediate (13 to 1 mm), fine (1 to 0.15 mm), and ultrafine (<0.15 mm). For
particle sizes greater than about 0.15 mm, the particles are separated based on the density differences between coal and
mineral matter particles. For particle sizes less than 0.15 mm, the particles are separated based on differences in surface
properties using flotation. In this case, the hydrophobic coal is floated from the hydrophilic mineral matter particles.
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION
(1) Coarse Particles
Coarse (–150+13 mm) coal separations are usually carried out using dense-medium vessels. Jigs are still used in some
plants (Fiscor 2010b), though they are not common for new facilities in the United States. A discussion of the jigging
process and jigging devices can be found elsewhere. A densemedium device offers the advantage of being able to
separate particles over a wide range of densities. In addition, it is possible to control the density of the medium with
great precision (±0.005 specific gravity units in some cases), making it the separator of choice for difficult-to-clean
coals (with large amounts of near-gravity material) and for low specific gravities of separation. Dense-medium devices
use a suspension of fine (~70% to 90% <0.044 mm) magnetite and water to create a pseudo-liquid of the appropriate
specific gravity. The magnetite is an appropriate solid because of its high magnetic susceptibility, allowing it to be
recovered using lowintensity magnetic separators. In addition, because of its relatively high specific gravity (5.0–5.2),
it is possible to produce suspension densities over the range of specific gravities (1.3–1.8) commonly used without
significant rheological problems.
Raw coal is fed into the dense-medium vessel along with the dense-medium slurry. The low-density (clean coal)
fraction floats on the dense-medium suspension, while the high-density (refuse) fraction sinks (Figure 7.16). These
separations are analogous to those made during float-sink testing. In one type of vessel, the clean coal overflows a
weir and the refuse is removed via a flight conveyor (Figure 7.17). The capacity of the unit varies with the size range
of the feed material and the amount of refuse to be removed. Commercial vessels are available that can process more
than 650 stph of raw coal and are capable of removing more than 400 stph of refuse.
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION
(1) Coarse Particles

Figure 7.16 Material flows in a dense-medium vessel Figure 7.17 Dense-medium vessel
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (1) Intermediate Particles
The primary devices for separating intermediate size (–13+1
mm) coal are dense-medium cyclones (Figure 7.18). In these
devices, gravity is replaced with centrifugal acceleration,
improving the separation efficiency for a given particle size
fraction compared to the separation in a “static” vessel. The
acceleration can be up to 200 times greater than gravity alone,
thus reducing the separation time, allowing finer particles to be
processed. The raw coal and dense-medium slurry enter the
cyclone tangentially, generally at a ratio of 3 to 4 parts of
medium to 1 part of coal (by weight). The denser refuse particles
Figure 7.18 Typical inclined installation of a
are driven to the cyclone wall and exit through the apex or
dense-medium cyclone
underflow. The lighter clean-coal particles are carried to the
vortex finder and exit in the overflow stream. To reduce the Table 7.9 Dense-medium cyclone approximate capacities

effects of size classification, finer magnetite (compared to that in

a vessel) may be used. As with a vessel, the cyclone separations
can also be controlled with great precision. However, factors that
can lead to operating problems include incorrect operating
pressures, poor feed distribution, misplaced fines, excessive
contamination of the dense medium, and improper density
control. Table 7.9 lists the approximate capacities for
standarddiameter dense-medium cyclones.
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (2) Dense-Medium Recovery
A dense-medium system requires the use of a Many circuit configurations are used for medium recovery.
separate circuit for the recovery of the dense A simplified flowsheet showing the key streams and unit
medium. After separation, drain-and-rinse screens operations for a dense-medium cyclone circuit is shown in
are used to separate the dense-medium slurry from Figure 7.19. As can be seen, the diluted dense medium from
the coal and refuse products. These can be either the rinse portion of the screens is concentrated using wet-
multislope or horizontal vibrating screens. Profile drum magnetic separators (Figure 7.20). These units
wire sieves are commonly used ahead of the capture the magnetite on the rotating stainless-steel drum
vibrating screens to drain some of the dense surface using permanent magnets located within the drum
medium from the clean coal and refuse particles. As shell. The recovered magnetite is returned to the dense-
the material passes over the first part of the medium circuit. As required, fresh magnetite is added to the
vibrating screen, additional media drains from the circuit to maintain the specific gravity of the medium and
clean coal and refuse particles. The combined drain water is added to maintain the sump levels. It is common to
material from the clean coal and refuse screens is direct or “bleed” a small percentage of the dense-medium
recycled to the dense-medium circuit. As the slurry to the dilute circuit to remove nonmagnetic material
material moves along the screen, water sprays are that may have entered the circuit by inadequate fines
used to rinse the magnetite from the products. This removal during raw coal screening (see Figure 7.1) or due to
diluted medium is then processed to recover the coal degradation in the circuit. Overall magnetite losses are
magnetite for reuse in the dense-medium circuit. often less than 0.5 kg per metric ton (1 lb/st) of raw coal
The final part of the screen is used in the processed.
dewatering of the products.
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (2) Dense-Medium Recovery

Figure 7.20 Wet-drum magnetic separator and

material flows for a self-leveling counter-rotation tank
Figure 7.19 Simplified dense-medium cyclone and recovery circuit
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (3) Fine Particles
1) Spiral Concentrators
Spiral concentrators (or spirals) are used extensively to process fine (–1+0.15 mm) coal. A spiral consists of a multi-
helical (three to seven turns) urethane-lined fiberglass trough (Figure 7.21). The slurry is fed at the top of the spiral,
usually from a constant head tank. The design of the device imposes a centrifugal force in addition to the flowing-film
separation. The combination of these actions forces the low-density particles outward, while the high-density particles
are driven inward. The coal and refuse particles are separated at the bottom of the trough by splitting the flow into
clean coal, refuse, and usually middling streams. In some designs, the refuse stream is removed continuously and is
collected in a central collecting pipe, which runs the length of the spiral.
A single spiral processes from 1.8 to 3.6 t/h (2 to 4 stph) of raw coal, typically at 20% to 35% feed solids (by
weight) with flow rates ranging from 75 to 130 L/min (20 to 35 gpm). The common method of increasing the capacity
for a given floor area is to nest two or three spirals in the same space, each having a separate feed point or start.
Multiple spirals are combined into a bank, which is fed from a common distributor (Figure 7.22).
Compound spirals combine a two-stage operation in a single unit. The refuse is removed continuously over the
first four turns, and then the slurry is repulped (without additional water) and passed over the final three turns (see
Figure 7.21). The middling stream is typically recycled. Staging spirals with recycling streams can be used to improve
overall circuit performance.
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (3) Fine Particles
1) Spiral Concentrators

Figure 7.21 Single-start two-stage spiral and typical solids split at Figure 7.22 Banks of double-start spirals
the discharge end
 7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (3) Fine Particles 2) Teeter-Bed Separators
Another device that can be used to treat fine coal is the teeter- When the column pressure exceeds the selected
bed separator (or hindered-settling column). This device pressure (set point), the underflow valve opens,
separates particles in a concentrated suspension under hindered- discharging the coarse/dense solids. A variation of
settling conditions by subjecting them to an upward current of this device is the Reflux Classifier. In this case,
water. Particles with settling velocities greater than the upward inclined plates are used within the column, which
water velocity settle and are discharged in the underflow, while leads to an increase in column capacity.
those with settling velocities less than the upward current are
carried and discharged to the overflow. The underflow discharge
rate is controlled so that material builds up in the column,
forming a dense (teeter) bed. The dense slurry acts as an
autogenous dense medium so that the settling particles
experience a density gradient in the bed. The bed density is
maintained by controlling the discharge rate of the underflow
slurry.
The feed slurry typically enters from the top of the column
through a center feed pipe, though different designs are
available (Figure 7.23). Teeter water is introduced through a
distributor in the column. The density of the bed is monitored
with a pressure sensor located on the column. As the bed density
(height) is increased, the pressure on the sensor increases. Figure 7.23 CrossFlow teeter-bed separator
 7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (3) Fine Particles 3) Water-Only Cyclones
Another device used to treat fine coal is the
wateronly (or autogenous) cyclone (Figure 7.24).
Unlike dense-medium cyclones, an external
medium is not used but rather an autogenous
medium is created by the feed solids. The design of
this unit differs from other cyclones in that the
conical section has a much wider angle, ranging
from 60° to 120°, compared to about 20° for
classifying and dense-medium cyclones. The wider
cone facilitates the creation of a dense bed, which
enhances the effects of hindered settling, allowing a
separation to be made primarily based on density.
Figure 7.24 Water-only cyclone
However, the separations obtained with water-only
cyclones are inferior to those of dense-medium
Table 7.10 Water-only cyclone approximate capacities
cyclones.
In particular, the first-stage cyclone underflow is
reprocessed to recover lost clean coal. The second-
stage cyclone overflow is recycled to the feed
stream of the first stage. Table 7.10 lists
approximate capacities for standard diameter water-
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (4) Ultrafine Particles The clean-coal-laden bubbles then float to the surface where
they are removed. To improve the overall recovery of
Separation of ultrafine (–0.15 mm) coal is done carbonaceous particles, a collector such as diesel oil or kerosene
using flotation. This process takes advantage of is added in quantities typically from 0.2 to 1.0 kg of oil per
the differences in surface properties between the metric ton of feed coal (0.4 to 2.0 lb/st). The oil preferentially
carbonaceous (coal) and mineral matter particles coats the coal, improving its floatability. Vegetable oils have
to enact a separation. Specifically, the been used as collectors, offering an alternative to petroleum
carbonaceous particles are hydrophobic, reagents.
whereas the mineral matter particles are
hydrophilic. In the flotation process, the raw
coal slurry (~5% to 10% solids by weight) is
mixed with a small amount of reagent known as
a frother. As air is introduced into the flotation
cell, bubbles form, and the frother facilitates the
formation of a stable froth at the surface of the
slurry (Figure 7.25). Frother types include
polyglycols and alcohols (e.g., methyl isobutyl
carbinol) using amounts in the range of 0.05 to
0.3 kg of frother per ton of feed coal. The
bubbles attach to the hydrophobic coal particles
while the hydrophilic mineral matter particles
remain in suspension. Figure 7.25 The flotation process
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (4) Ultrafine Particles

1) Mechanical Cells
In conventional or mechanical cells,
the tank is agitated with an impeller.
The impeller is used to shear the air as
it is drawn into the cell and to keep the
particles in suspension. It is common
to combine multiple cells in a series of
four to eight cells, forming a bank of
cells to increase the retention time of
the slurry, improving clean coal
recovery. Parallel banks are used to
process the desired feed rate. Flotation
cells with volumes from 28 m3 (1,000
ft3) up to 100 m3 (3,530 ft3) have been Figure 7.26 Bank of FLSmidth WEMCO 1+1
used (Figure 7.26). mechanical flotation cells
 7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION (4) Ultrafine Particles
2) Column Cells
Another type of flotation device is the column cell. The feed slurry typically
enters above the middle of the column, while air is introduced near the bottom
of the column (Figure 7.27). The rising bubbles attach to the coal, while the
refuse sinks to the bottom where it is removed. Wash water is often added from
the top of the column. This, in combination with the countercurrent flow in the
column, assists in washing away refuse particles that may be trapped in the
froth. This device is often more effective than conventional cells when
processing very fine coal. Columns up to 4.88 m (16 ft) in diameter and up to
9.14 m (30 ft) high have been used in coal cleaning plants.
A recent development in flotation technology has been the introduction of
the StackCell flotation device. These units are able to achieve high flotation
capacity and columnlike performance in a smaller size. Feed slurry enters the
separator through a nozzle, either from the bottom or side, and then low-
pressure air is added. A pre-aeration sparging device provides shear and bubble–
particle collisions occur in an aeration chamber before injecting into the primary
tank. Because of the small size of the units, they can be used in series with Figure 7.27 CoalPro flotation column and
multiple units or placed ahead of mechanical or column cells and have been operating zones: (1) wash water, (2) clean
used in industrial circuits. coal froth, (3) discharge launder, (4) feed
inlet, (5) sparging system, and (6) refuse
discharge
7. Coal Preparation
7.4 SEPARATION
(4) Ultrafine Particles

3) Jameson Cell
Another type of flotation unit is the Jameson cell
(Figure 7.28). In this unit, the feed slurry is injected
as a high-pressure jet into a vertical tube that extends
into the cell (downcomer). The liquid jet shears the
atmospheric air, which is carried into the slurry. The
high-energy contact with the slurry in the downcomer
produces fine air bubbles, which collide and attach to
the hydrophobic coal particles. The coalladen bubbles
are separated in the pulp zone in the cell. The high
velocities in the cell keep the particles in suspension
without the need for a mechanical mixer. This unit is
extensively used in Australia but is not as common in
U.S. installations.
Figure 7.28 Jameson flotation cell
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING
After the coal is separated from the refuse, it must be in a form that can be handled by the downstream operations and
eventually by the customer. Likewise, the refuse must be suitable for disposal at the designated disposal site. This area
of concern is designated as disposition and includes dewatering, thickening, refuse disposal, and reconstitution.
Dewatering involves the removal of the surface moisture from the clean coal (and refuse) to produce an acceptable
product and is techniques, although in the latter case it is usually referred to as drying. Common dewatering devices
include screens, centrifuges, filters, presses, and thickeners. Thermal drying is generally not considered for surface
moisture removal for new facilities in the United States in part because of environmental concerns and will not be
discussed further in this chapter. More discussion on this process can be found elsewhere
The moisture content is related to the surface area of the material, and finer material will have higher moisture
contents compared to coarser coal. For example, it may be possible to dewater +30 mm material to 5% surface
moisture, but it may only be possible to dewater 0.15 mm material to 20% surface moisture. Because the moisture
specification for the clean coal product is often in the range of 7% to 10%, it is necessary to blend the higher-moisture
fine and ultrafine material with the coarser material to meet the product specification.
 7. Coal Preparation 7.5 DEWATERING
(1) Screens
For coarse coal, dewatering is straightforward and can be accomplished
at least in part on a vibrating screen whereby the water drains from the
solids through the screen deck. For particles coarser than about 30 mm,
product moistures of 5% or less can be obtained. This would be the case
for clean coal and refuse material being dewatered on drain-and-rinse
screens. Although dewatering on drain-and-rinse screens also occurs for
intermediate coal, the moisture content is too high, so additional
dewatering is required (as discussed in the next section).
High-frequency screens can also be used for dewatering fine coal and
fine refuse. These units with aperture sizes of approximately 0.3 mm
operate at higher frequencies but at lower amplitudes compared to
typical vibrating screens. Unlike fine coal sizing screens, these devices
are usually operated in a reverse inclined direction so that a bed of coal is
produced on the screen deck. The bed acts as a filter for the fine coal or
refuse (Figure 7.29). This allows the material to be dewatered, typically
to less than 30% moisture, while minimizing the loss of fines through the
screen. High-frequency screens are generally not as large as their coarse Figure 7.29 Fine coal/refuse dewatering screen
coal counterparts, with screen widths up to 2.4 m (8 ft) and lengths up to
3.7 m (12 ft). Sieve bends are also used to assist in dewatering, usually
ahead of another dewatering device such as a centrifuge or filter.
7. Coal Preparation 7.5 DEWATERING
(2) Centrifuges
Centrifuges are used to further reduce the moisture content of the
clean coal. Different types of units are used depending on the size
range being processed.
1) Basket Centrifuges
For material in the size range of approximately 50 to 1 mm,
vibratory basket centrifuges are used. Although various designs are
available, the feed to a typical basket centrifuge is introduced into the
center of the device (Figure 7.30). The rotating action forces the coal
Figure 7.30 Material flows in a vertical
outward to the centrifuge basket, which is essentially a fine aperture vibratory basket centrifuge
stainless-steel screen. The coal travels along the truncated conical
basket and is discharged over the edge of the basket while the
effluent passes through the basket openings. Product surface
moistures under 5% are possible depending on the amount of finer
material present. Vertical and horizontal units are available (Figure
7.31).
For fine (–1+0.15 mm) clean coal, a scroll is used to facilitate
movement of the solids along the basket (Figure 7.32). For these
units, surface moistures in the range of 14% to 18% would be
expected. In this case, partial dewatering should be done, for
example, by either a reverse inclined vibrating screen or sieve bends Figure 7.31 Horizontal vibratory basket centrifuge
ahead of the centrifuge.
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING (2) Centrifuges

2) Screen-Bowl Centrifuges
When dewatering both fine and ultrafine (–0.15+0.044
mm) clean coal, screen-bowl centrifuges are used (Figure
7.33). These units consist of both solid and screen-bowl
sections. The feed slurry enters at the center of the unit,
and the solids are driven to the bowl. The solids are
moved along the bowl and screen by the screw, which
rotates at a speed slightly slower than the bowl speed. The
main effluent is discharged over a weir at the opposite
end from the solids discharge. The effluent from the
screen section, which will contain ultrafine coal, is
recycled to the centrifuge feed stream to improve solids Figure 7.33 Material flows and internal schematic of a
recovery. These devices typically produce product screen-bowl centrifuge: (1) feed pipe, (2) thrust
moistures in the range of 15% to 20%, though the bearings, (3) driven sheave, (4) main bearings, (5)
moisture content will depend on the percentage of 0.044 vibration isolators, (6) feed compartments, (7) screen
mm (–325 mesh) material in the feed (Meenan 1988). As wash header, (8) screw conveyor, (9) dewatering screen,
(10) planetary gearbox, and (11) torque sensor
a rule of thumb, approximately 50% of the –325 mesh
material in the feed is lost by the unit.
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING (3) Vacuum Filters
Vacuum disk filters are typically used when dewatering A variation of the disk filter is the hyperbaric
ultrafine coal that contains a large portion of –0.044 mm filter in which a disk filter operates inside of a
material, as would be typical for a flotation product that had ressurized chamber. This provides additional
not been deslimed. A disk filter (Figure 7.34) consists of pressure of several atmospheres to improve the
multiple disks (depending on the required filter area), up to filtration rate and provide a drier cake
3.66 m (12 ft) or more in diameter, which are attached to a
slowly (<0.5 rpm) rotating shaft. Each disk is made of
multiple sectors or filter leafs. As the disk rotates into the
feed slurry (~20% to 40% solids by weight), the wet solids
are picked up, and a cake forms on the filter cloth. As the
sector with the cake rotates out of the slurry, water is drawn
from the cake voids during this dewatering step. Dewatering
continues until the dewatered coal is scraped from the disk,
usually with the assistance of an air purge to help in
dislodging the cake (Figure 7.35). The pickup, dewatering,
and discharge cycle typically takes about 2 to 3 minutes.
Depending on the size distribution of the feed, especially the
amount of –0.074 mm (–200 mesh) material in the feed,
product moistures between 25% and 30% can usually be Figure 7.34 Dorr-Oliver disk filter
obtained. Some newer filter designs operate at speeds up to 6
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING (3) Vacuum Filters (4) Filter Presses
1) Belt Filter Presses
A belt filter press applies mechanical pressure via
Single Section a series of rolls to the slurry, which is located
Cake Area
between two filter belts (Figure 7.36). The coal
slurry is squeezed by the rolls between the
moving belts, forcing the water from the cake
(Figure 7.37). The effluent (filtrate) passes
Feed through the belts, while the cake is discharged at
the other end. Additional flocculants are used to
improve filter performance. Belt filter presses are
Overflow
Discharge able to produce higher pressures compared to
Hopper vacuum filters, resulting in lower product
moisture contents. These units have commonly
been used to dewater fine refuse material from
Filtrate
the thickener underflow (discussed in the next
Cake
section) to obtain moisture contents in the range
Figure 7.35 Disk filter operation of 30% to 40% (Parekh 2009). The dewatered
material is often blended with the coarse refuse
for disposal.
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING
(4) Filter Presses
1) Belt Filter Presses

Figure 7.37 Operation of a belt filter press: (1) preconditioning/

flocculation, (2) feed distribution, (3) gravity drainage, (4) wedge
Figure 7.36 Belt filter press pressure, (5) compression/shear, and (6) solids discharge
 7. Coal Preparation Slurry Flow

7.5 DEWATERING
Filter Cloth
(4) Filter Presses
2) Plate Filter Presses Slurry

In a plate filter press, the feed slurry is pumped into Filter Plate
receiving chambers. The pressure forces the filtrate
Filtrate
through the filter cloth until the chambers are filled with
solids (Figure 7.38). Feed pressures in the range of 700 to
900 kPa (100–130 psi) are typical, but higher pressures are
possible depending on the unit. Multiple plates are placed
together to increase the capacity of a given unit (Figure
7.39). Additional dewatering can be accomplished in some
devices, for example, by forcing water from the cake voids
using compressed air. After filtering, the press is opened,
and the cake is discharged, while the incoming coal slurry
is directed to either another device (see Figure 7.39) or to a
holding tank. The cycle is then repeated. Filter presses
have been shown to produce product moistures in the range
of 18% to 25%, depending on the type and size distribution
of feed material, including the amount of clays, without the
need for additional flocculants. Figure 7.39 TH Minerals plate filter presses
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING
(5) Thickeners
1) Conventional Thickeners

A thickener is essentially a large, circular settling tank where many of the nonproduct process streams, which
usually contain low solids concentrations (<5%), are discharged (Figure 7.40). These units can also be used to
concentrate the finer clean coal. Thickeners use gravity settling to concentrate the slurry up to approximately 25%
solids, though the final concentration depends in part on the size distribution and composition of the feed solids. To
increase the settling rate of the feed particles, various chemicals, including polymer flocculants, are added to
agglomerate or flocculate the particles. The larger agglomerated particles then settle much faster. The type and
quantity of flocculant depends on the characteristics of the slurry, pH, and so on. As the solids settle toward the
bottom of the thickener, they are compressed by the weight of the solids, squeezing out additional water. The
thickened solids are driven toward the center of the thickener by mechanical rakes, where they are eventually
pumped from the thickener underflow. The clarified water overflows the thickener and is reused in the plant
(Figure 7.41). These units range from 15 m (50 ft) to more than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter and are typically 3 to 5 m
(10 to 16 ft) deep. The thickened slurry may be pumped to a slurry impoundment, for example, or dewatered
further using a belt filter press or plate filter.
 7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING (5) Thickeners
1) Conventional Thickeners
Local Control Planetary
Panel Gearbox

Hydraulic
Power Unit
Feed Well

Velocity
Break Box

Overflow
Collection
Launder

Rakes Underflow Pipe

Underflow Cone

Figure 7.40 Thickener operation: (1) feed slurry, (2) flocculant addition, Figure 7.41 Conventional thickener showing the
(3) feed well, (4) settling flocculated solids, (5) thickener underflow support bridge and clarified water overflow
discharge, (6) rising clarified water, and (7) thickener overflow discharge
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING
(5) Thickeners
2) Deep-Cone Thickeners

To increase the solids concentrations of the

thickener underflow, deep-cone (paste)
thickeners can be used. These units are
much deeper than conventional thickeners,
providing a thicker bed to increase the
compression on the settled solids (Figure
7.42). The result is that the solids
concentration in the underflow can be
increased 45% to 50% in some cases. The
thickened underflow or paste may be
stacked in layers, eliminating the need for
additional dewatering. These units are used
extensively worldwide in the mineral
industry and have been applied in the U.S. Figure 7.42 Rendering of a deep cone paste thickener
coal industry.
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING
(6) Reconstitution
One problem with cleaning ultrafine particles is that they must eventually be handled in nonslurry form. The
common practice is to blend the ultrafine particles with the coarser fractions prior to shipment. However, depending
on the fineness, quantity, and moisture content of the ultrafine particles, blending may not be sufficient to overcome
handling problems. In such cases, reconstitution could be an option. Moreover, reconstitution offers a solution for
handling material containing a majority of fine and ultrafine material as might be found in an impoundment site.
The goal of reconstitution is to produce agglomerated particles that can withstand the rigors of handling and
transportation, yet are not too difficult to pulverize prior to utilization. Briquetting involves the production of
particle agglomerates or briquettes by squeezing the dewatered particles in a briquetting device (Figure 7.43).
Briquetting often requires the use of a binding agent, though binderless briquetting is possible under certain
conditions. Briquetting has been used in combination with binders to recover coal fines from refuse sites. Sawdust
has also been used as a binding material.
Another option has been to use fibers in combination with heating to produce briquettes. In this case, fibers
from waste carpet are mixed with the dewatered coal fines and then extruded to produce the briquettes. Another
approach to reconstitution involves the addition of a binder to the coal slurry, prior to dewatering by filtration or
centrifugation. The advantage of this “in situ” cake-hardening process is that a reconstitution device is not needed.
The objective is to produce agglomerated particles, which can be handled without the generation of dust,
eliminating the need for the briquetting step.
7. Coal Preparation
7.5 DEWATERING (7) PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
(6) Reconstitution 1) Yield, Recovery, and Rejection
When evaluating a separation, it is important to
know if the product met the specification such as
ash %, sulfur %, or heating value (Btu/lb). This is
determined by sampling the clean coal and then
analyzing the sample using the relevant ASTM
procedure. Different sampling techniques can be
employed depending on the sample location.
Obviously, it is also important to know how much
clean coal was produced, not only the absolute
tonnage (tons per hour) but also the relative
production or clean coal yield.
2) Partition Curves
Figure 7.43 Briquetting and compacting roll press The common approach for characterizing density-
based separations is to calculate the partition values
and to generate the corresponding curves from
which the appropriate characteristic performance
parameters are derived.
7. Coal Preparation
7.6 SUMMARY
Coal preparation plays a vital role in upgrading ROM material to produce a salable product, serving as the quality
control arm of the coal industry. Coal preparation facilities incorporate multiple cleaning circuits to treat the entire
size range of raw coal. The types of separation devices are similar throughout the industry with dense-medium vessels
being used for coarse coal, dense-medium cyclones for intermediate coal, spirals for fine coal, and flotation for
ultrafine coal. Variations of this circuitry depend on the characteristics of the feed coal and product specifications,
including whether the coal is being produced as a thermal or metallurgical coal. Improvements in equipment designs
and materials of construction have allowed larger units to be used, simplifying overall plant circuitry, with equipment
selection often based on vendor preference.
In addition to producing coal that meets the desired product specification in terms of ash, sulfur, and/or heating
value, moisture reduction continues to be an important consideration. Although various dewatering devices are used,
similar dewatering strategies are employed. These involve screens and basket centrifuges for coarse and intermediate
coal, scroll and/or screen-bowl centrifuges for fine coal, and screen-bowl centrifuges or vacuum filters for ultrafine
coal. Screening is used for dewatering coarse, intermediate, and fine refuse. Thickeners are used for increasing the
solids concentration of the ultrafine refuse. Slurry impoundments continue to be used for thickened fine/ultrafine
refuse, though paste thickening and filter presses offer alternative processing strategies. Reconstitution, though not
commonly practiced, provides an option for improving the handleability of fine and ultrafine coal as well as a
technique for reclaiming coal from impoundment areas.
 The above is the main content of
Coal Preparation

Thank You ！

48
02:10:15 AM 48