Logic!

Logic
Mathematical Logic is a tool for working with complicated compound statements. It includes: A language for expressing them. A concise notation for writing them. A methodology for objectively reasoning about their truth or falsity.

Logic
Crucial for mathematical reasoning Important for program design Used for designing electronic circuitry Used in queries for databases & search engines.

Propositional Logic
(Propositional) Logic is a system based on propositions. propositions. A proposition is a (declarative) statement that is either true or false (not both, neither or somewhere in between). We say that the truth value of a proposition is either true (T) or false (F). (T (F Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits
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The Statement/Proposition
Elephants are bigger than mice. Is this a statement? Is this a proposition? What is the truth value of the proposition? yes yes

true
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The Statement/Proposition
520 < 111 Is this a statement? Is this a proposition? What is the truth value of the proposition? yes yes

false
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The Statement/Proposition
y > 5 Is this a statement? Is this a proposition? yes no

Its truth value depends on the value of y, but this value is not specified. We call this type of statement a propositional function or open sentence. sentence.
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The Statement/Proposition
Today is January 27 and 99 < 5. Is this a statement? Is this a proposition? What is the truth value of the proposition? yes yes

false
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The Statement/Proposition
Please do not fall asleep. Is this a statement? Its a request. Is this a proposition? no no

Only statements can be propositions.

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The Statement/Proposition
If the moon is made of cheese, then I will be rich. Is this a statement? Is this a proposition? What is the truth value of the proposition? yes yes

probably true
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The Statement/Proposition
x < y if and only if y > x. Is this a statement? Is this a proposition? because its truth value does not depend on specific values of x and y. What is the truth value of the proposition? true
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yes yes

Combining Propositions
As we have seen in the previous examples, one or more propositions can be combined proposition. to form a single compound proposition. We formalize this by denoting propositions with letters such as P, Q, R, S, and introducing several logical operators or logical connectives. connectives.
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Logical Operators (Connectives)

We will examine the following logical operators: Negation Conjunction Disjunction Exclusive-or Exclusive Implication Biconditional (NOT, ) (AND, ) (OR, ) (XOR, ) (if then, p ) (if and only if,

Truth tables can be used to show how these operators can combine propositions to compound propositions.

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Negation (NOT)
Unary Operator, Symbol: P true (T) false (F) P false (F) true (T)
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Examples of Negation () operator

1) P : I have brown hair. P : I do not have brown hair. 2) P : It is cold. P : It is not cold. 3) P : 2 + 3 > 1 P:2+3<1
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Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P T T F F Q T F T F P Q T F F F
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Examples of And () operator

1) P : I will have rice for lunch. Q : I will have chapati for dinner. P Q : I will have rice for lunch and chapati for dinner. 2) P : It is raining. Q : 3 < 5. P Q : It is raining and 3 < 5.
Note: A conjunction P1 P2 its Truth Table.

Pn of n propositions will have 2n rows in

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Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P T T F F Q T F T F P Q T T T F
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Examples of OR () operator
1) P : My car has a bad engine. Q : My car has a bad carburetor. P Q : My car has a bad engine, or my car has a bad carburetor (or both). Note: P Q is TRUE means P is true, or Q is true, or both are true! So, this operation is also called inclusive or. or.

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Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P T T F F Q T F T F P Q F T T F
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Examples of XOR () operator

1) P : I will earn an A in this course. Q : I will drop this course. P Q : I will either earn an A in this course, or I will drop this course (but not both). Note: P Q is TRUE means that either P is true, or Q is true, but not both are true together! So, this operation is called exclusive or. or.

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Implication (if then)

Binary Operator, Symbol: p
P T T F F Q T F T F PpQ T F T T
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Examples of Implication (p) operator (p

P : You study hard. Q : You will get a good grade. P p Q : If you study hard, then you will get a good grade (else it could be go either way). So, if P is true then, then Q is true; but if P is not true then Q could be either true or false.

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Implication Continue
P p Q is false only when P is true but Q is not true. P p Q does not say say that P causes Q. P p Q does not require that P or Q are ever true. Example: (1=0) p Elephant can fly TRUE

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Implication Continue
(1=0) p Elephant can fly : TRUE!! Seems Wrong !! Well, there is discrepancy in between English Language and Mathematical Logic. In English, a sentence if P then Q usually really implicitly means: In all possible situations, if P then Q Q follows from P Q is implied by P This is not necessarily true for mathematical logic.
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Implication Continue
(1=0)p (1=0)p Elephant can fly: If (1=0) then Elephant can fly : PpQ Pp

What about Elephant can not fly p (1=0) : If Elephant (1=0) Elephant can not fly then (1=0) : Q p P ? TRUE What is the relation between P p Q and Q p P ? They have the same meaning (truth table)!! PpQ Q p P (Converse) P p Q (Inverse) Q p P (Contrapositive)
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Implication Continue
Truth table for P p Q, P p Q, Q p P, Qp P P T T F F Q T F T F P F F T T Q P p Q P p Q Qp P Q p P F T F T T F T T T T F T T T F T T F T T

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More Examples of Implications

1) If this lecture ends, then the sun will rise tomorrow. True or False? 2) If Tuesday is a day of the week, then I am a penguin. True or False? 3) If 1 + 1 = 6, then Pratibha is President. True or False? 4) If moon is made of green cheese, then I am richer than Bill Gates. True or False?
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Biconditional (if and only if)

Binary Operator, Symbol: m
P T T F F Q T F T F PmQ T F F T
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Examples of Biconditional (m) operator

The biconditional P m Q states that P is true if and only if (iff) Q is true. P : He passes second semester. Q : He will be a student of third semester classes. P m Q : If, and only if, he passes second semester, he will be a student of third semester classes.

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Biconditional Continue
P m Q true means that P and Q have the same truth value (either true or false).

Truth Table of m is exactly opposite of the truth Table of . (Thus (P m Q) means p(P Q).) P m Q does not imply that P and Q are true, or causes each other.

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Propositional Operations: Truth Table Summary

P T T F F Q T F T F P F F T T PQ P Q P Q P pQ P m Q T F F F T T T F F T T F T F T T T F F T

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Some Alternative Notations

Name Propositional Logic Boolean Algebra C/C++ (wordwise) C/C++ (Bitwise) Logic gates not and or xor implies iff

Pc ! ~

PQ && &

+ || |

!= ^

==

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Nested Propositional Expressions

More than 2 propositions could form a new (meaningful) expression by adding proper parenthesis and operators. Examples: 1) P : I just saw my old friend. Q : He is grown. R : I have shrunk. P (Q R) : I just saw my old friend, and either he is grown or I have shrunk. Notes: 1) (PQ) R would mean something different.
2) P Q R would be ambiguous.
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Examples Continue
2) P : It rained last night. Q : The sprinkler was on last night. R : The lawn was wet this morning. R P Q : Either the lawn wasnt wet this morning, or it rained last night, or the sprinkler was on last night. Note: By convention, takes precedence over both and . Thus, P Q means ( P) Q, but not (P Q). (
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Nested Expressions
Truth Table
P T T F F Q T F T F P F F T T Q F T F T
(P)(Q) P)

F T T T
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Nested Expressions
Truth Table
P T T F F Q T F T F PQ (PQ) (P)(Q) P) T F F F F T T T F T T T
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Exercises
To take discrete mathematics, you must have taken calculus or a course in computer science. When you buy a new car from Kiron Motor Company, you get Rs.2000 back in cash or a 2% car loan. School is closed if more than 6 inches of rain falls or if the wind chill is below 2oc.

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Exercises
To take discrete mathematics, you must have taken calculus or a course in computer science. P: take discrete mathematics Q: take calculus R: take a course in computer science

P p Q R

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Exercises
When you buy a new car from Kiron Motor Company, you get Rs. 2000 back in cash or a 2% car loan.
P: buy a car from Kiron Motor Company Q: get Rs. 2000 cash back R: get a 2% car loan

Pp Q

R
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Exercises
School is closed if more than 6 inches of rain falls or if the wind chill is below 2oc.
P: School is closed Q: 6 inches of rain falls R: wind chill is below 2oc

QRpP Precedence among operators:

, , , p, m
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Equivalent Statements
P Q (PQ) (P)(Q) (PQ)m(P)(Q) P) Q)m P)

T T F F

T F T F

F T T T

F T T T

T T T T

The statements (PQ) and (P) (Q) are logically ( equivalent, equivalent, since they have the same truth table, or put it in another way, (PQ) m(P) (Q) is always true.
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Tautologies and Contradictions

A tautology is a statement that is always true. Examples: R(R) (PQ) m (P)( Q) P) A contradiction is a statement that is always false. Examples: R(R) ((P Q) m (P) (Q)) The negation of any tautology is a contradiction, and the negation of any contradiction is a tautology.
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Equivalence
Definition: two propositional statements S1 and S2 are said to be (logically) equivalent, denoted S1 | S2 if
They have the same truth table, or S1 S2 is a tautology

Equivalence can be established by

Constructing truth tables Using equivalence laws

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Logical Equivalence
Equivalence laws
Identity laws, Domination laws, Idempotent laws, Double negation law, Negation Laws, Commutative laws, Associative laws, P T | P, and P F | P P T | T, and P F | F P P | P, and P P | P ( P) | P P P | T, and P P | F P Q | Q P, and P Q | Q P P (Q R) | (P Q) R, P (Q R) | (P Q) R P (Q R) | (P Q) (P R), P (Q R) | (P Q) (P R) (P Q) | ( P) ( Q) (P Q) | ( P) ( Q) 45

Distributive laws, De Morgans laws,

Logical Equivalence (Implications)

PpQ|PQ PpQ|QpP PQ|PpQ P Q | (P p Q) (P p Q) | P Q (P p Q) (P p R) | P p (Q R) (P p R) (Q p R) | (P Q) p R (P p Q) (P p R) | P p (Q R) (P p R) (Q p R) | (P Q) p R
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Logical Equivalence (Biconditionals)

P m Q | (P p Q) (Q p P) PmQ|PmQ P m Q | (P Q) ( P Q) (P m Q) | P m Q

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Propositional Functions & Predicates

Propositional function (open sentence): statement involving one or more variables, e.g.: x-3 > 5. xLet us call this propositional function P(x), variable. where P is the predicate and x is the variable. What is the truth value of P(2) ? false What is the truth value of P(8) ? false What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
When a variable is given a value, it is said to be instantiated Truth value depends on value of variable
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Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function Q(x, y, z) defined as: x + y = z. Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the variables. variables. true What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true A propositional function (predicate) becomes a instantiated. proposition when all its variables are instantiated.
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Propositional Functions
Other examples of propositional functions Person(x), which is true if x is a person Person(Sushruta) = T Person(dolly-thePerson(dolly-the-sheep) = F ICTCourse(x), which is true if x is an ICT course ICTCourse(Communication) = T ICTCourse(DIM) = F

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Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a predicate (propositional function). Universally quantified sentence: sentence: For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true. Using the universal quantifier : x P(x) for all x P(x) or for every x P(x) (Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a proposition, not a propositional function.)
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Universal Quantification
Example: Let the universe of discourse be all people
S(x): x is a UGICT student. G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (S(x) p G(x)) mean ? If x is a UGICT student, then x is a genius. or All UGICT students are geniuses. If the universe of discourse is all UGICT students, then the same statement can be written as
x G(x)
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Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence: sentence: There exists an x in the universe of discourse for which P(x) is true. Using the existential quantifier : x P(x) There is an x such that P(x). There is at least one x such that P(x). (Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a proposition, but not a propositional function.)

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Existential Quantification
Example: P(x): x is a DAIICT professor. G(x): x is a genius. What does x (P(x) G(x)) mean ? There is an x such that x is a DAIICT professor and x is a genius. or At least one DAIICT professor is a genius.
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Quantification
Another example: Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers. What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ? For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320. Is it true? Is it true for the natural numbers? yes no
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Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so that P(c) is false. Statements such as x (P(x) p Q(x)) can be disproved by simply providing a counterexample. Statement: All birds can fly. Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

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Negation of Quantifiers
Negation True Flase P(x) is true for every x There is an x for which P(x) is true (x P(x)) There is an x for which P(x) is false (x P(x)) For every x, P(x) is false

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)). ( (x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)). ( This is de Morgans law for quantifiers
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Negation
Examples Not all roses are red
x (Rose(x) p Red(x)) x (Rose(x) Red(x))

Nobody is perfect
x (Person(x) Perfect(x)) x (Person(x) p Perfect(x))

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Nested Quantifier
A predicate can have more than one variables.
S(x, y, z): z is the sum of x and y F(x, y): x and y are friends

We can quantify individual variables in different ways

x, y, z (S(x, y, z) p (x <= z y <= z)) x y z (F(x, y) F(x, z) (y != z) p F(y, z))

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Nested Quantifier
Exercise: translate the following English sentence into logical expression
There is a rational number in between every pair of distinct rational numbers

Use predicate Q(x), which is true when x Q(x), is a rational number

x,y (Q(x) Q (y) (x < y) p (Q u (Q(u) (x < u) (u < y)))
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Nested Quantifier
Exercise: translate the following English sentence into logical expression
If a person is female and is a parent, then this person is someones mother Use predicate P(x): x is parent, F(x): x is female parent, and M(x,y): x is the Mother of y. x, (F(x) P(x)) p y M(x,y). or x y, ((F(x) P(x)) p M(x,y)).

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Quantification of Two Variables

Statement
x y P(x,y) y x P(y,x) x y P(x,y) x y P(x,y) x y P(x,y) y x P(y,x)

True P(x,y) is true for every pair x, y. For every x there is a y for which P(x,y) is true.

False There is a pair x, y for which P(x,y) is false. There is an x such that P(x,y) is false for every y.

There is an x for which For every x there is a y P(x,y) is true for every y. for which P(x,y) is false. There is a pair x, y for which P(x,y) is true. P(x,y) is false for every pair x, y.

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