Object-Oriented

Software Design (lecture 7)

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Basic Mechanisms:
 Objects:
 A real-world entity.
 A system is designed as a set of
interacting objects.
 Consists of data (attributes) and
functions (methods) that operate on data
 Hides organization of internal information
(Data abstraction)
 Examples: an employee, a book etc.

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Object-oriented Concepts

m8 m7
mi are methods
of the object

m1 m6
Data
m2 m5

Object

m3 m4
Model of an object

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Class:
 Instances are objects
 Template for object creation
 Examples: set of all employees, different
types of book

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Methods and message:
 Operations supported by an object
 Means for manipulating the data of
other objects
 Invoked by sending message
 Examples: calculate_salary, issue-
book, member_details, etc.

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Inheritance:
 Allows to define a new class (derived
class) by extending or modifying existing
class (base class)
 Represents Generalization-
specialization relationship
 Allows redefinition of the existing
methods (method overriding)

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Multiple Inheritance:
 Subclass can inherit attributes and
methods from more than one base class

 Multiple inheritance is represented by

arrows drawn from the subclass to each of
the base classes

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Object-oriented Concepts

LibraryMember Base Class LibraryMember Base Class

Derived
Faculty Students Staff Faculty Students Staff
Classes
Multiple
Inheritance

UnderGrad PostGrad Research UnderGrad PostGrad Research

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Key Concepts:
 Abstraction:
 Consider aspects relevant for certain
purpose
 Suppress non-relevant aspects
 Supported at two levels i.e. class level
where base class is an abstraction &
object level where object is a data
abstraction entity

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Advantages of abstraction:
 Reduces complexity of software
 Increases software productivity
 It is shown that software
productivity is inversely proportional
to software complexity

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Encapsulation:
 Objects communicate outside world
through messages
 Objects data encapsulated within its
methods

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Object-oriented Concepts

m4

m3
m5

m2 Data
m6

m1

Methods

Concept of encapsulation
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Object-oriented Concepts
 Polymorphism:
 Denotes to poly (many) morphism
(forms)
 Same message result in different
actions by different objects (static
binding)

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Dynamic binding:
 In inheritance hierarchy, an object can be
assigned to another object of its ancestor class

 A method call to an ancestor object would

result in the invocation of appropriate method
of object of the derived class

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Dynamic binding:
 Exact method cannot be known at compile
time

 Dynamically decided at runtime

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Object-oriented Concepts
 Composite objects:
 Object containing other objects

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Advantages
of Object-oriented design
 Code and design reuse
 Increased productivity
 Ease of testing & maintenance
 Better understandability
 Its agreed that increased
productivity is chief advantage

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Advantages
of Object-oriented design
 Initially incur higher costs, but
after completion of some projects
reduction in cost become possible
 Well-established OO methodology
and environment can be managed
with 20-50% of traditional cost
of development

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Object
modelling using UML
 UML is a modelling language
 Not a system design or
development methodology
 Used to document object-
oriented analysis and design
 Independent of any specific
design methodology

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UML
 UML is a standard language for
specifying, visualizing, constructing, and
documenting the artifacts of software
systems.
 UML was created by the Object
Management Group (OMG) and UML 1.0
specification draft was proposed to the
OMG in January 1997.

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 Although UML is generally used to model
software systems, it is not limited within
this boundary. It is also used to model
non-software systems as well. For
example, the process flow in a
manufacturing unit, etc.
Goals of UML

 A picture is worth a thousand words, this

idiom absolutely fits describing UML.
Object-oriented concepts were introduced
much earlier than UML. At that point of
time, there were no standard
methodologies to organize and
consolidate the object-oriented
development. It was then that UML came
into picture.
 There are a number of goals for developing
UML but the most important is to define some
general purpose modeling language, which all
modelers can use and it also needs to be
made simple to understand and use.
 UML diagrams are not only made for
developers but also for business users,
common people, and anybody interested to
understand the system. The system can be a
software or non-software system.
 In conclusion, the goal of UML can be defined
as a simple modeling mechanism to model all
possible practical systems in today’s complex
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environment.
Role of UML in OO Design

 UML is a modeling language used to

model software and non-software
systems. Although UML is used for non-
software systems, the emphasis is on
modeling OO software applications.
 Most of the UML diagrams discussed so
far are used to model different aspects
such as static, dynamic, etc. Now
whatever be the aspect, the artifacts are
nothing but objects.
 Before understanding the UML in detail,
the OO concept should be learned
properly. Once the OO analysis and
design is done, the next step is very easy.
The input from OO analysis and design is
the input to UML diagrams.
UML diagrams
 Views of a system
 User’s view
 Structural view
 Behavioral view
 Implementation view
 Environmental view

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UML diagrams

Behavioural View
Structural View - Sequence Diagram
- Class Diagram - Collaboration Diagram
- Object Diagram
- State-chart Diagram
- Activity Diagram
User’s View
- Use Case
Diagram

Implementation View Environmental View

- Component Diagram - Deployment Diagram

Diagrams and views in UML

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Are all views required?
 NO
 Use case model, class diagram and one
of the interaction diagram for a simple
system
 State chart diagram in case of many
state changes
 Deployment diagram in case of large
number of hardware components

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Use Case model
 Consists of set of “use cases”
 An important analysis and design
artifact
 Other models must confirm to this
model
 Not really an object-oriented model
 Represents a functional or process
model

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Use Cases
 Different ways in which system can be used
by the users
 Corresponds to the high-level requirements
 Represents transaction between the user and
the system
 Define behavior without revealing internal
structure of system
 Set of related scenarios tied together by a
common goal

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Use Cases
 Normally, use cases are independent
of each other
 Implicit dependencies may exist
 Example: In Library Automation
System, renew-book & reserve-book
are independent use cases. But in
actual implementation of renew-book,
a check is made to see if any book has
been reserved using reserve-book

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Example of
Use Cases
 For library information system
 issue-book
 Query-book
 Return-book
 Create-member
 Add-book, etc.

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Representation of
Use Cases
 Represented by use case diagram
 Use case is represented by ellipse
 System boundary is represented by
rectangle
 Users are represented by stick
person icon (actor)
 Communication relationship
between actor and use case by line
 External system by stereotype

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Example of
Use Cases

Play Move

Player Tic-tac-toe game

Use case model

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Why develop
Use Case diagram?
 Serves as requirements specification
 Users identification helps in
implementing security mechanism
through login system
 Another use in preparing the
documents (e.g. user’s manual)

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Factoring
Use Cases
 Complex use cases need to be factored
into simpler use cases
 Represent common behavior across
different use cases
 Three ways of factoring
 Generalization
 Includes
 Extends

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Factoring Using
Generalization

Pay membership fee

Pay through credit card Pay through library pay card

Use case generalization

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Factoring Using
Includes
<<include>> Common
Base use case
use case

Use case inclusion

Base use case Base use case

<<include>>
<<include>>
<<include>> <<include>>

Base use case Base use case Base use case

Paralleling model 38
Factoring Using
Extends

Base <<extends>> Common

use case use case

Use case extension

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Class diagram
 Describes static structure of a system
 Main constituents are classes and their
relationships:
 Generalization
 Aggregation
 Association
 Various kinds of dependencies

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Class diagram
 Entities with common features, i.e.
attributes and operations
 Classes are represented as solid
outline rectangle with compartments
 Compartments for name, attributes &
operations
 Attribute and operation compartment
are optional for reuse purpose

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Example of
Class diagram

LibraryMember LibraryMember LibraryMember

Member Name Member Name
Membership Number Membership Number
Address Address
Phone Number Phone Number
E-Mail Address E-Mail Address
Membership Admission Date Membership Admission Date
Membership Expiry Date Membership Expiry Date
Books Issued Books Issued
issueBook( );
findPendingBooks( );
findOverdueBooks( );
returnBook( );
findMembershipDetails( );

Different representations of the LibraryMember class

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Association Relationship

Library Member
1 borrowed by * Book

Association between two classes

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Aggregation Relationship
 Represent a whole-part relationship
 Represented by diamond symbol at
the composite end

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Aggregation Relationship

1 * 1
Document Paragraph * Line

Representation of aggregation

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Composition Relationship

 Life of item is same as the order

1 *
Order Item

Representation of composition

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Class Dependency

Dependent Class Independent Class

Representation of dependence between class

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Object diagram

LibraryMember LibraryMember LibraryMember

Mritunjay Mritunjay
B10028 B10028
C-108, Laksmikant Hall C-108, Laksmikant Hall
1119 1119
Mrituj@cse Mrituj@cse
25-02-04 25-02-04
25-03-06 25-03-06
NIL NIL

IssueBook( );
findPendingBooks( );
findOverdueBooks( );
returnBook( );
findMembershipDetails( );

Different representations of the LibraryMember object

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Sequence diagram
 A sequence diagram is an interaction diagram.
From the name, it is clear that the diagram deals
with some sequences, which are the sequence of
messages flowing from one object to another.
 Interaction among the components of a
system is very important from
implementation and execution perspective.
Sequence diagram is used to visualize the
sequence of calls in a system to perform a
specific functionality.

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Sequence diagram
 Messages are shown as arrows
 Message labelled with message name
 Message can be labelled with control
information
 Two types of control information:
condition ([]) & an iteration (*)

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Example of
Sequence diagram
:Library
:Library
:Library Book :Library
Book :Book
Boundary Renewal Member
Register
Controller

renewBook find MemberBorrowing

displayBorrowing
selectBooks bookSelected
* find
[reserved]
[reserved] apology
update
apology

confirm

confirm
updateMemberBorrowing

Sequence Diagram for the renew book use case

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Collaboration diagram

 Collaboration diagram is another form of

interaction diagram. It represents the
structural organization of a system and
the messages sent/received. Structural
organization consists of objects and links.
 The purpose of collaboration diagram is
similar to sequence diagram.

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 However, the specific purpose of
collaboration diagram is to visualize the
organization of objects and their
interaction.

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Collaboration diagram
 Shows both structural and behavioural
aspects
 Objects are collaborator, shown as boxes
 Messages between objects shown as a solid
line
 Message is shown as a labelled arrow
placed near the link
 Messages are prefixed with sequence
numbers to show relative sequencing

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Example of
Collaboration diagram
6: * find
:Library
Book :Book
[reserved] Register
9: update
8: apology 5: book 10: confirm
Selected
1: renewBook :Library [reserved]
:Library Book 7: apology
Boundary 3: display Renewal
Borrowing Controller

4: selectBooks
2: findMemberBorrowing

12: confirm
:Library
Member

updateMemberBorrowing

Collaboration Diagram for the renew book use case

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Activity diagram
 Activity diagram describes the dynamic
aspects of the system.
 It is basically a flowchart to represent
the flow from one activity to another
activity.

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Elements of Activity diagram
Initial State: Filled circle
Final State: Filled circle inside larger
circle
State: Rectangle with rounded
corners
Transitions: Arrow between states,
also boolean logic condition (guard)

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Example of
Activity diagram
Academic Section Accounts Section Hostel Office Hospital Department

check
student
records
receive
fees

allot create
hostel hospital
record
register
receive
in
fees
course
conduct
allot medical
room examination

issue
identity card
Activity diagram for student admission procedure at IIT
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State Chart diagram
 Any real-time system is expected to be
reacted by some kind of
internal/external events. These events
are responsible for state change of the
system.
 Statechart diagram is used to represent
the event driven state change of a
system. It basically describes the state
change of a class, interface, etc.
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 State chart diagram is used to visualize
the reaction of a system by
internal/external factors.

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State Chart diagram
 Elements of state chart diagram
 Initial State: Filled circle
 Final State: Filled circle inside larger
circle
 State: Rectangle with rounded corners
 Transitions: Arrow between states,
also boolean logic condition (guard)

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Example of
State Chart diagram
order received
Unprocessed
Order
[reject] checked [accept] checked

Rejected Accepted
Order Order
[some items available]
[some items not processed / deliver
available] processed

[all items
Pending available] Fulfilled
Order newsupply Order

Example: State chart diagram for an order object

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Design Patterns
 Standard solutions to commonly
recurring problems
 Provides a good solution to model
 Pattern has four important parts
 The problem
 The context (problem)
 The solution
 The context (solution)

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Example Pattern
 Expert
 Problem: Which class should be
responsible for doing certain things
 Solution: Assign responsibility to the
class that has the information
necessary to fulfil the required
responsibility

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Example Pattern
 Creator
 Problem: Which class should be
responsible for creating a new instance
of some class?
 Solution: Assign a class C1 the
responsibility to create class C2 if
 C1 is an aggregation of objects of
type C2
 C1 contains object of type C2

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Example Pattern
 Controller
 Problem: Who should be responsible
for handling the actor requests?
 Solution: Separate controller object for
each use case.

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Example Pattern
 Facade
 Problem: How should the services be
requested from a service package?
 Context (problem): A package
(cohesive set of classes), example:
RDBMS interface package
 Solution: A class (DBfacade) can be
created which provides a common
interface to the services of the package

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Example 1: Tic-Tac-Toe
Computer Game
 A human player and the computer make
alternate moves on a 3 3 square.
 A move consists of marking a previously
unmarked square.
 The user inputs a number between 1
and 9 to mark a square
 Whoever is first to place three
consecutive marks along a straight line
(i.e., along a row, column, or diagonal)
on the square wins.
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Example 1: Tic-Tac-Toe
Computer Game
 As soon as either of the human player or
the computer wins,
 a message announcing the winner should be
displayed.
 If neither player manages to get three
consecutive marks along a straight line,
 and all the squares on the board are filled up,
 then the game is drawn.
 The computer always tries to win a
game.

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Example 1: Use Case Model

Play Move

Player Tic-tac-toe game

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Example 1: Sequence Diagram

:playMove :playMove
:board
Boundary Controller

acceptMove checkMoveValidity
move
[invalidMove] [invalidMove]
announceInvalidMove
announceInvalidMove
checkWinner
[game over]
[game over] announceResult
announceResult
playMove
checkWinner

[game over] [game over]

announceResult announceResult

displayBoardPositions getBoardPositions

[game not over]

promptNextMove

Sequence Diagram for the play move use case

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Example 1: Class Diagram

Board PlayMoveBoundary

int position[9]

checkMove Validity announceInvalidMove

checkResult announceResult
playMove displayBoard

Controller

announceInvalidMove
announceResult

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Example 2: Supermarket Prize
Scheme
 Supermarket needs to develop
software to encourage regular
customers.
 Customer needs to supply his
residence address, telephone
number, and the driving licence
number.
 Each customer who registers is
assigned a unique customer
number (CN) by the computer.
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Example 2: Supermarket Prize
Scheme
 A customer can present his CN to
the staff when he makes any
purchase.
 The value of his purchase is
credited against his CN.
 At the end of each year, the
supermarket awards surprise gifts
to ten customers who make highest
purchase.
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Example 2: Supermarket Prize
Scheme
 Also, it awards a 22 carat gold coin
to every customer whose purchases
exceed Rs. 10,000.
 The entries against the CN are reset
on the last day of every year after
the prize winner’s lists are
generated.

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Example 2: Use Case Model

register
Customer customer Clerk

register
sales

Sales Clerk
select
winners

Supermarket
Prize scheme
Manager

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 Example 2: Sequence Diagram for
the Select Winners Use Case
:SelectWinner :SelectWinner :Sales :Sales :Customer :Customer
Boundary Controller History Record Register Record

Select
SelectWinners
Winners
SelectWinners
*computeSales

*browse

[for each winner]

find WinnerDetails [for each winner]
announces
browse

Sequence Diagram for the select winners use case

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 Example 2: Sequence Diagram for
the Register Customer Use Case
:SelectWinner :SelectWinner :Customer :Customer
Boundary Controller Register Record

register
register
checkDuplicate
*match

[duplicate]

showError
generateCIN

create
register :Customer
Record
displayCIN

Sequence Diagram for the register customer use case

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Example 2: Sequence Diagram for
the Register Sales Use Case

:Register :Register
:Sales
Sales Sales
History
Boundary Controller

RegisterSales registerSales
registerSales

create :Sales
Record

confirm
confirm

Sequence Diagram for the register sales use case

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Example 2: Sequence Diagram for
the Register Sales Use Case

:Register
:Sales
Sales
History
Boundary

registerSales
RegisterSales

create :Sales
Record

confirm

Refined Sequence Diagram for the register sales use case

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Example 1: Class Diagram

SalesHistory CustomerRegister

selectWinners findWinnerDetails
registerSales register

1 1

* *
SalesRecords CustomerRecord

salesDetails name
address
computerSales browse
browse checkDuplicate
create create

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Summary
 We discussed object-oriented
concepts
 Basic mechanisms: Such as objects,
class, methods, inheritance etc.
 Key concepts: Such as abstraction,
encapsulation, polymorphism,
composite objects etc.

82
Summary
 We discussed an important OO language
UML
 Its origin, as a standard, as a model
 Use case representation, its factorisation
such as generalization, includes and extends
 Different diagrams for UML representation
 In class diagram we discussed some
relationships association, aggregation,
composition and inheritance

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Summary
 Some more diagrams such as
interaction diagrams (sequence and
collaboration), activity diagrams,
state chart diagram
 We discussed OO software
development process and patterns
 In this we discussed some patterns
example and domain modelling

84
Coding Standards

 The main goal of coding standard is to

code from the design document prepared
after the design phase.
 Good software development
organisations want their programmers to
maintain to some well-defined standard
style of coding coding standards.

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 A coding standards gives a uniform
appearance to the codes written by
different engineers.

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Some coding standards
are:

 Limited use of global data

 Standard headers for different modules
 Avoid using a coding style that is too
difficult to understand
 Code should be well documented
 Try not to use go to statement

87
Code Review

 It is a systematic examination.
 Which can be find and remove the errors
in the code such as memory leaks and
buffer overflows.
 Technical reviews are well documented
and use a well-defined defect detection
process that includes peers and technical
experts.
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Code review techniques

 Technical
 Code walkthrough
 Technical review
 Inspection

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 Code inspection is the most formal type of
review, which is kind of static testing to
avoid the defect of multiplication at a
large stage.
 The main purpose of code inspection is to
find defects and it can also spot any
process improvement if any.

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