UNIT 2

Peripheral Interfacing-I

Starting to Program Digital Input and Output

Voltages as Logic Values
Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
Digital Output on the mbed
Lab 4: A/D conversion program
Digital Input and Output.
Switching Larger DC Loads
Lab 5: Mini Project: Letter
Counter
Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse Width Modulation on the mbed
Design of PWM problem
Lab 6: PWM waveform generation
Starting to Program Digital Input and Output
/*Program Example 2.1: A program which flashes mbed LED1 on and off.
Demonstrating
use of digital output and wait functions. Taken from the mbed site. */
#include "mbed.h" //include the mbed header file as part of this program
// program variable myled is created, and linked with mbed LED1
DigitalOut myled(LED2);
int main() { //the main function starts here
while(1) { //a continuous loop is created
myled = 1; //switch the led on, by setting
the output to logic 1
wait(0.2); //wait 0.2 seconds
myled = 0; //switch the led off
wait(0.2); //wait 0.2 seconds
} //end of while loop
} //end of main function
 Voltages as Logic Values
This data show that, for most digital inputs, the LPC1678 interprets any input voltage
below 1.0 V (specified as 0.3 3.3 V) as Logic 0, and any input voltage above 2.3 V
(specified as 0.7 3.3 V) as logic 1
This idea is represented in the diagram of Fig
Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
Microcontrollers are often required to interface with analog signals

They must be able to convert input analog signals, for example from
microphone or temperature sensor, to digital data

They must also be able to convert digital signals to analog form, for
example
if driving a loudspeaker or dc motor

An analog-to-digital convertor (ADC) is an electronic circuit whose digital

output is proportional to its analog input

Effectively it "measures" the input voltage, and gives a binary output number
proportional to its size

The input range of the ADC is usually determined by the value of a voltage
reference
Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
The conversion is started by a digital input, called here SC
It takes finite time, and the ADC signals with the EOC line when the conversion is
complete
The resulting data can then be enabled onto a data bus using the OE line
Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
 Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
Resolution and quantisation
By converting an analog signal to digital, we are effectively approximating it, as
any one digital output value has to represent a very small range of analog input
voltages, i.e. the width of any of the steps on the “staircase” n.

If we want to convert an analog signal that has a range 0-3.3 V to an 8-bit digital
signal, then there are 256 (i.e. 28) distinct output values. Each step has a width of
3.3/256 = 12.89 mV, and the worst case quantisation error is 6.45mV.

The mbed uses a 12-bit ADC. This leads to a step width of 3.3/2^12, or 0.8 mV;
the worst case quantisation error is therefore 0.4 mV.

When converting an analog signal to digital, we repeatedly take a „sample‟ and

quantise this to the accuracy defined by the resolution of our ADC.

The more samples taken, the more accurate the digital data will be. Samples are
normally taken at fixed periods (i.e., every 0.2ms) and define the rate of sampling
by the sampling frequency (the number of samples taken per second).
 Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
The sample frequency needs to be chosen with respect to the rate of which the
sampled data is changing. If the sample frequency is too low then rapid changes in
the analog signal may not be obvious in the resulting digital data.

For this reason the Nyquist sampling criterion states that the sampling frequency
must be at least double that of the highest frequency of interest.
Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
The mbed has up to six analog inputs, on pins 15 to 20
Introducing Analog output Data Conversion
Exercise 1:Attach a potentiometer output to mbed pin 20. (Note:pin 20 is
connected to potentiometer Pot 2 of the application board)
Start a new mbed project and enter the code below.
This code will continuously display the analog input value when used with a host
PC terminal application.
Digital Output on the mbed-Using Light Emitting Diodes
LEDs now appear in all manner of shapes and sizes, the most familiar perhaps being the
single LED
Digital Output on the mbed-Using Light Emitting Diodes
The mbed, however, has 26 digital input/output (I/O) pins (pins 5-30) which can be configured
either as digital inputs or outputs
 Digital Output on the mbed’ Using mbed External Pins

The digital I/O pins are named and configured to output using DigitalOut

#include "mbed.h"
DigitalOut redled(p5); //define and name a
digital output on pin 5
DigitalOut greenled(p6); //define and name a
digital output on pin 6
int main() {
while(1)
{ redled =
1;
greenled = 0;
wait(0.2);
redled = 0;
greenled = 1;
wait(0.2);
}
}
Using Digital Inputs-Connecting Switches to a Digital System

Using Digital Inputs-The DigitalIn API

Using Digital Inputs- Using if to Respond to a Switch Input

#include "mbed.h" else { //here if switchinput is 0

DigitalOut redled(p5); redled = 0; //red led is off
DigitalOut greenled(p6); greenled = 1; // flash green led
DigitalIn switchinput(p7); wait(0.2);
int main() { greenled = 0;
while(1) { wait(0.2);
if (switchinput==1) { //test value of } //end of else
switchinput } //end of while(1)
//execute following block if switchinput } //end of main
is 1
greenled = 0; //green led is off
redled = 1; // flash red led
wait(0.2);
redled = 0;
wait(0.2); }
Using Digital Inputs- Using if to Respond to a Switch Input
Optoreflective and Transmissive Sensors
Optoreflective and Transmissive Sensors

#include "mbed.h"
DigitalOut redled(p5);
DigitalIn opto_switch(p12);
int main() {
while(1) {
if (opto_switch==1) //input = 1 if beam interrupted
redled = 1; //switch led on if beam interrupted
else
redled = 0; //led off if no interruption
} //end of while
}
 Seven-Segment Displays

(MSB) 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 (LSB)
 Seven-Segment Displays

(MSB) DP g f e d c b a (LSB)
 Seven-Segment Displays

(MSB) DP g f e d c b a (LSB)

#include "mbed.h"
BusOut display(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12); //
segments dp,a,b,c,d,e,f,g
int main() {
while(1) {
for(int i=0;
i<4; i++) {
switch (i){
case 0: display = 0x3F; break; //display 0
case 1: display = 0x06; break; //display 1
case 2: display = 0x5B; break;
case 3: display = 0x4F; break;
} //end of switch
wait(0.2);
} //end of for
} //end of while
}
 Switching Larger DC Loads

a port pin can source up to around 40 mA.

DC motor needs to run from a higher voltage, then an interface circuit will be
needed.
 Switching Larger DC Loads

a port pin can source up to around 40 mA.

DC motor needs to run from a higher voltage, then an interface circuit will be
needed.
 Switching Larger DC Loads

a resistive load, like a motor or heater using a bipolar transistor requires load current, and
the value of the current gain (β) of the transistor
devices in today’s electronics using MOSFET requires threshold gate-to-source voltage,
above which the transistor switches on.
inductive load, like a solenoid or DC requires freewheeling diode.
This is needed because any inductance with current flowing in it stores energy in the
magnetic field which surrounds it.
When that current is interrupted, in this case, by the transistor being switched off, the
energy has to be returned to the circuit.
This happens through the diode, which allows decaying current to continue to
circulate.
If the diode is not included then a high voltage transient occurs, which can/will destroy the
FET.
Switching Larger DC Loads
Switching Multiple Seven-Segment Displays

Mini Project: Letter Counter

Use the slotted optosensor, push-button
switch and one seven-segment LED
display to create a simple letter counter.

Increment the number on the display by

one every time a letter passes the sensor.

Clear the display when the push button is

pressed.
 Analog Output-DAC

After processing the data, they may then need to convert digital data back to analog
form, for example, to drive a loudspeaker or DC motor
A digital-to-analog converter is a circuit which converts a binary input number into an
analog output.

Vr is the value of
the voltage reference,
D is the value of the binary input
word,
n is the number of bits in
that word, and
Vo is the output voltage
 Analog Output-DAC

The number of possible output values is given by 2n, and the step size by Vr/ 2n; this is
called the resolution.
The maximum possible output value occurs when D = (2n -1)
The range of the DAC is the difference between its maximum and minimum output
values.
For example, a 6-bit DAC will have 64 possible output values; if it has a 3.2 V reference,
it will have a resolution (step size) of 50 mV.
Analog Output-DAC
 Analog Output-DAC

/*Program Example 4.1: Three values of DAC are output in turn

on Pin 18. Read the output on a DVM. */
#include "mbed.h"
AnalogOut Aout(p18); //create an analog output on pin 18
int main() {
while(1) {
Aout=0.25; // 0.25*3.3V = 0.825V
wait(2);
Aout=0.5; // 0.5*3.3V = 1.65V
wait(2);
Aout=0.75; // 0.75*3.3V = 2.475V
wait(2);
}
}
 Analog Output-DAC
/*Program Example 4.2: Saw tooth waveform on AC output. View on oscilloscope*/
#include "mbed.h"
AnalogOut Aout(p18);
float i;
int main() {
while(1){
for (i=0;i<1;i=i+0.1){ // i is incremented in steps of 0.1
Aout=i;
wait(0.001); // wait 1 millisecond}}}
 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation on the mbed

Pulse width modulation (PWM), an alternative, represents a neat and remarkably
simple way of getting a rectangular digital waveform to control an analog
variable, usually voltage or current.
PWM control is used in a variety of applications, ranging from telecommunications to
robotic control.
Pulse width modulation (PWM), an alternative, represents a neat and remarkably
simple way of getting a rectangular digital waveform to control an analog variable,
usually voltage or current.
PWM control is used in a variety of applications, ranging from telecommunications
to
robotic control.
 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

The duty cycle is the proportion of time that the pulse is “on” or “high” and is
expressed as a percentage,

A 100% duty cycle therefore means “continuously on” and a 0% duty cycle means
“continuously off.”
PWM streams are easily generated by digital counters and comparators, which can
readily be designed into a microcontroller.
They can also be produced simply by program loops and a standard digital output,
with no dedicated hardware at all
 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation on the mbed

 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

Electrically, we can use a low-pass filter, e.g., the resistor-capacitor combination

Pulse Width Modulation on the mbed

/*Sets PWM source to fixed frequency and duty cycle. Observe output
on oscilloscope.*/
#include "mbed.h"
PwmOut PWM1(p21); //create a PWM output called PWM1 on pin 21
int main() {
PWM1.period(0.010); // set PWM period to 10 ms
PWM1=0.5; // set duty cycle to 50%
}
 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

Speed Control of a Small Motor

/*Program Example 4.5: PWM control

to DC motor is repeatedly ramped */
#include "mbed.h"
PwmOut PWM1(p21);
float i;
int main()
{ PWM1.period(0.010); //set
PWM period to 10 ms
while(1) {
for (i=0;i<1;i=i+0.01) {
PWM1=i; // update PWM duty cycle
wait(0.2);
}}}
 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

Servo Control

A servo is a small, lightweight, rotary position control device, often used in radio
controlled cars and aircraft to control angular position of variables such as steering,
elevators, and rudders
 Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation

Producing Audio Output

A servo is a small, lightweight, rotary position control device, often used in radio
controlled cars and aircraft to control angular position of variables such as steering,
elevators, and rudders
#include "mbed.h"PwmOut speaker(p21);
void play_tone(float frequency, float volume, int interval, int rest) {
speaker.period(1.0 / frequency);
speaker = volume;
wait(interval);
speaker = 0.0;
wait(rest);}
int main(){
while(1) {
play_tone(659.0, 0.5, 1, 1); play_tone(554.0, 0.5, 1, 1);
play_tone(659.0, 0.5, 1, 1); play_tone(554.0, 0.5, 1, 1);
play_tone(440.0, 0.5, 1, 1); play_tone(494.0, 0.5, 1, 0.5);
play_tone(554.0, 0.5, 1, 0.5); play_tone(587.0, 0.5, 1, 1);
play_tone(494.0, 0.5, 1, 1); play_tone(659.0, 0.5, 1, 1);
play_tone(554.0, 0.5, 1, 1); play_tone(440.0, 0.5, 1, 2); }}