Research Methods for

Management
 Unit-I
Research
 Research

Research Meaning
Research is a systematic activity to achieve the truth. It includes
the identification of study area, the procedure for collecting
data, analyzing the data, and finding the conclusions or truth
based upon the scientific procedure.
According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.
Objectives of research
1) Research extends knowledge
2) Research unravels the mysteries of nature
3) Research establishes generalization and general laws
4) Research verifies and tests
5) General laws developed through research
6) Research analyze inter-relationships
7) Applied research aims at finding solutions
8) Aims to develop tools and Concepts
9) Research aids in planning
10) Rational decision making
Scope of Research
. Scope of Research

Accounting and Finance

Human Resource
Development and
Organisation Behaviour

Marketing Research

Industrial Research

Organisational Research

Production Research
Types of research

Types of Research

On the basis On the basis

On the basis
On the basis Extent of of Time
of
of research Theory Dimension
objectives

Theoretical Cross
Exploratory Sectional
Pure

Empirical Longitudinal
Descriptive
Applied

Casual
Research Process
Significance of Research

Significance of Research

Making Future Forecast Understanding Market Place

Understanding Perceived Improving the Quality of

Value of Goods Decision Making

Solving Operational and Expanding Existing Business

Planning Problems

Exploring New Business Broadening and Deepening

Technological Capabilities
Research Methods and Methodology
Necessity of Problem Definition
 The definition of the problem sets the direction of the
study
 The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of
the study
 It helps the researcher to control subjectivity
 The definition of the problem specifies the variables to be
taken up into the investigation
 It makes the research work practicable
 It brings into clear understanding of the relations and
determines the position of decision maker
 It is finding hidden difficulties and new opportunities
 Identifies the data relevant to the problem
 Technique/Steps in Problem
Definition
Statement of Understanding
the problem in the nature of
general way the problem

Surveying the
available
literature

Developing the Rephrasing

Ideas through the Research
Discussions problem

Redefining the
 Unit-II
Research Design
 Research Design

Meaning
A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study
that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data.
Definition
According to kerlinger, “Research design is the plan, structure,
& strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers
to Research questions and control variance.
According to Green and Tull, “ A Research design is the
specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the
information needed. It is the overall Operational pattern or
framework of the project that stipulates what information is to
be collected from which sources by what features”.
Features of Good research Design
Features of Good Research Design

Objectivity Reliability

Validity Generalization

Adequate Information Theory-Grounded

Situational Feasible

Redundant Efficient

Must answer Research Control of Independent

questions Variables

Other Features
Purpose of Research Design
 Accurate results
 Control of Variance
 Replicate the study
 Provides Blueprint
 Facilitates Systematic Investigation
 Visualizes and Forecasts Potential Problems

Elements of a Research design

 Sample Design
 Observational design
 Statistical Design
 Operational Design
Steps in Research Design
Selection and Definition of a data

Sources of Data

Nature of Study

Object of Study

Social Culture Context

Temporal Context

Dimension
 Types of Research Design
Experimental
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research
Research
Literature Pre-
Observational
Review Experimental

Two Tiered True-

Case Study
Design Experimental

Quasi-
Depth Interview Survey method
Experimental

Case Study Statistical

Focus Groups

Projective
Techniques
Experimental/Casual Design
Meaning
Experimental research is any research conducted with a
scientific approach, where a set of variables are kept constant
while the other set of variables are being measured as the
subject of experiment. Experimental research can gather a lot
of data that can help you make better decisions.

Experimental research is one of the founding 

quantitative research methods.
Principles of Experimental Research Design
 Randomization
 Replication
 Local Control
Developing A research Plan
 Sampling
Meaning
A Sample is a portion of the Population which is Examined with a
view to Estimating the characteristics of the population.

Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an

aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference
about the aggregate or totality is made.

Sampling design
The Researcher makes several Decisions when designing a
Sample. The Sampling decisions flow from Two Decisions made
in formation of the Management research question hierarchy-The
nature of the management question and specific investigative
questions that evolve from the research question.
Sampling Concepts
 Population or Universe

 Census

 Sample and Sampling

 Precision

 Bias

Need for Sampling

 Economical

 Save Time

 Small Staff

 Detailed Information

 Small Scale of Operation

 Provide Adequate information

Steps in Sampling
Define Universe

Sample frame

Specifying Sampling Units

Selection of Sample Design

Determination of Sample size

Select the Sample

 True
Practical Representat
ive

Good size Objective

Criteria
For Good
Sampling Comprehen
Economical
Design sive

Accurate Approach

Free From
Feasible
Bias
Types of Sampling Design
 Probability Sampling

Simple
Area Random
Sampling sampling

Probability
Sampling
Clusters Systematic
sampling Sampling

Stratified
Multi-Stage
Random
Sampling Sampling
Non Probability sampling

Snowball Quota
Sampling sampling

Non
Probability
Sampling

Panel Judgment
Sampling Sampling

Convenience
Sampling
 Unit-III
Measurement and Scaling
 Measurement and Scaling
Meaning : Measurement
Measurement is the process of observing and recording the
observations that are collected as part of a research effort.
Technically speaking, measurement is a process of
mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range
according to some rule of correspondence.
Definition
According to G.C.Helmstadter, “Measurement is a process
of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which a
person or object possesses some Characteristics”.
Need for Measurement
 Facilitates Description of Social and Psychological

Phenomena
 Provides Data for Statistical Operation
 Facilitates Testing of theories
 Enables Researchers in Differentiation

Errors in Measurement
 Subject Factors
 Researcher Factors
 Environmental factors
 Instrumentation Factors
Measurement Process

Using Multiple
Observers

Using Various
Methods for
Calculations

Establishing
Behavioral
Categories
Tests of Sound Measurement
Tests of Sound Measurement
Test of
Test of Validity Test of Reliability
Practicability
Test-Retest
Content Validity Economy
method

Construct Alternate Forms

Convenience
Validity Method

Split-halves
Interpretability
Method

Internal
Consistency
Scaling
Meaning
Scaling may be considered as extension of measurement.
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to
various degrees of opinion, attitude, and other concepts.
The term ‘Scaling’ is applied to the procedures for
attempting to determine quantitative measures of
subjective abstract concepts.
Scaling has been defined as a “Procedures for the
assignment of numbers to a property of objects to impart
some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties
in question .
 Nominal
Classifications/Methods/Types of scales

Ratio
Process of Scaling

Collection of Relevant Variables

Scrutinising the variable Items

Formation Of Scale
Scale Classification Basis
1) Subject Orientation
2) Response Form
3) Degree of Subjectivity
4) Scale Properties
5) Number of Dimensions
Scaling Techniques
Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scales Non-Comparative Scales

Continuous Itemised
Paired Comparison Rating Rating
Scales Scales

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort
Data Collection
Meaning
Data Collection is the process of to gather
information about the relevant topic of research, which
is being done by researcher.
Data collection is a term used to describe of
preparing and collecting Data.
Sources of Data Collection : Types of data
Any statistical Data classified under two Categories
depending upon the sources utilized.
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Primary Data:
Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources,
using methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is collected with
the research project in mind, directly from primary sources.
Tools/Methods of Primary Data Collection
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Schedules
 Online surveys
 Observation

Other Methods
 Warranty Cards
 Distributor
 Pantry audits
 Mechanical Devices
 Simulation
 Panel
Significance of Primary Data
 Reliability
 Availability of a wide range of techniques
 Addresses Specific Research Issues
 Greater Control
 Efficient Spending For Information
 Proprietary Information

Limitations of Primary Data

 Cost
 Time Consuming
 Not always Feasible
 Large Volume of Data
 Reluctancy of Respondents
Questionnaire
Meaning
Questionnaire is a data collection instrument. It is a
list of questions to be asked from the respondents. It
also contains a suitable space where the answers can be
recorded.
Types of questionnaire
 Structured, Non-disguised Questionnaire
 Non-Structured, Non-disguised Questionnaire
 Non-Structured, Disguised questionnaire
 Structured, Disguised Questionnaire
 Determin
Determin
Constructing Questionnaire Determin
e the
e what e the
Type of
Informati content of
Question
on is Deciding Determin Individual
naire to
wanted on e the questions
use
Wording Type of
of Questions Decide on
Decide on
Decide on Questions to Use Layout
Length of
Question and
Question
Sequence Reproduc
naire
tion
Check
Pre-test
Questions

Revision
and Final
Draft
 Contingency Open Ended

Rating Scale Leading

Types of
Questions
Dichotomous Likert

Importance Bipolar

Buying
Close Ended
Propensity
Significance Of Questionnaire
 Economical
 Time Saving
 Accessibility to Diverse Respondents
 Free From Bias
 Greater Anonymity
 Respondents Convenience
 Standardized Wordings
 No Variations

Limitations Of Questionnaire
 Unwillingness of Respondent to Provide Information
 Inability of Respondent To Provide Information
 Influence of Questioning Process
 Other Limitations
Schedule
Meaning
Schedule is an instrument in Research, which is
most Frequently used on Collecting Field data
especially where the survey method is employed. It is
used in indirect Interview
Definition
According to Goode and hatt, “Schedule is that
name Usually applied to a set of questions which are
asked and filled in by an interviewer in face to face
situation with another person”
Types of Schedule
 Enquiry Schedule
 Observation Schedules
 Rating Schedule
 Documentary Schedule
 Interview Schedule

Preparation of Schedule
 Defining the Problem
 Framing the Questionnaire
 Sequential Order of Questions
 Pilot Survey
Significance of Schedule method
 Higher Response
 Saving of Time
 Personal Contact
 Human Touch
 Deeper Probe
 Defects in Sampling are Detected
 Removal of Doubts
 Human Elements make the study more Reliable and Dependable

Limitations of Schedule Method

 Costly and Time Consuming
 Need of Training Field Workers
 Adverse Effect of Personal Presence
 Organizational Difficulties
Interview: Meaning
Interview is a Conversation between Two or more People where
questions asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the
interviewee.

Characteristics of Interview Method

 Needs Proper Introduction
 Incorporates Transitory Relationships
 Caters to a Specific Purpose
 Verbal Interaction
 Facilitates Telephonic Conversation
 Group Studies possible
 Interactional Process
 Simultaneous Recording
 Flexible and Psychological Process
 Electronic Personal

Types of
Interview
Panel Telephone

Self-
Administere Mail
d
Significance of Interview Method
 Means of Securing Detailed Information
 Encourages Input by Interviewer
 Assists in Availing Supplementary Information
 Incorporates the use of devices
 Cross Checking of Accuracy
 Flexible Exercise

Limitations of Interview Method

 Expensive
 Subject to bias and Personal Traits
 Ineffective in Some Areas
 Recording Complexities
 Demand Skilled Interviewers
 Subjective
 Difficulty In Analysis
Secondary Data
Meaning
Secondary data are those which have been already
collected and analysed by some earlier agency for its
own use and later the same data are used by a different
agency.
Definition
According to W.A. Neiswanger, “A Secondary
source is publication, reporting the data which have
been gathered by other authorities and for which others
are responsible”.
Tools/Methods of Secondary Data Collection
 Internal Secondary Data
Sales analysis
Invoice Analysis
Accounting Records
 External Secondary Data
Libraries
Literature
Periodicals
Census and Registration Data
Trade associations
Government Departments
Private Sources
Commercials Data
Financial Data
International Organizations
Reference and Bibliography
Volume Statistics
Advertising Agencies
Significance of Secondary Data
 Economy

 Quickness

 No Need of Measuring Instruments

 Availability

 Bases for Comparison

 Useful in Exploratory Research

 Generates Feasible Alternatives

Limitations of Secondary Data

 Relevance

 Accuracy

 Existence of Obsolete Information

 Non-disclosure of Research findings

 Seldom Catering to the need

Primary Data vs. Secondary Data
 Unit-IV
Processing and Analysis of Data
Data Processing
Meaning
Data Processing is essential in recording information analyzing the
information and communicating analysis.

Data analysis Operations

Data processing refers to the process of converting data from one format to
another. It transforms plain data into valuable information and information
into data. Processing operations of data involves Following steps

 Editing
 Coding
 Classification
 Tabulation
Editing Data
The raw data contains number of errors during the
process of recording the information in surveys. By
means of editing one tries to eliminate the error or
remove the points of confusion.
Essentials of Editing
 Completeness
 Accuracy
 Uniformity

Stages of Editing
 Field Editing
 Office/Central Editing
Coding of Data
Coding is the procedure of classifying the answers to a question
into meaningful categories. The symbols used to indicate these
categories are called codes.
Essentials of Coding
 Appropriate to the Research Problem

 Exhaustive

 Mutually Exclusive

 Single Dimension

 Code Sheets

Procedure of Coding
 Identification of open coding

 Axial Coding

 Selective Coding
Classification of Data
Most Research studies result in a large volume of raw data which
must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are get meaningful
relationships.
Types of classification
 Classification According to Attributes
 Classification According to Class-intervals

Principles in Classification of Data

 Classification Should Not be Ambiguous
 Classification Should be on the basis of single classification Principle
 Classification Should be Mutually Exclusive
 Classification Should be Mutually Exhaustive
 Classification Should be Action Oriented
 Classification Should be Distinct
 Classification Should be Pertinent to Marketing Research Report
Tabulation of Data
Tabulation is the primary function of data analysis. The data is validated and
analysed to generate tables in a client specified format that helps the
researcher to interpret the results of the survey and present it to his/her client.
According to Blair, “Tabulation in its broadest sense is an orderly
arrangement of data in columns and rows”.
Advantages of Tabulation
 Simplifies Facts
 Economy
 Helpful In Comparison
 Facilitates Computation
 Helps in Reference
 Helps in Interpretation and Presentation

Disadvantages of Tabulation
 No Description
 Difficult for Layman
 Lack of Emphasis
Importance of Data Processing
 Checks the Data for Accuracy

 Provides Better Understanding

 Puts into a Suitable Form

 Helps in Decision Making

 Makes Data Transferable

 Readability

Problems in Data Processing

 Data entry Errors

 Data Editing Errors

 Data Coding Error

 Error in Assignment of Survey Weights

 Error in Tabulation
Parametric Test
Meaning
Parametric Tests are based on models with some assumptions. If
the assumptions hold well, these tests may offer a more powerful
tool for analysis. It is usually assumes certain properties of the
parent population from which we Draw Samples.
Important Parametric Tests
 z-test

 t-test

 f-test

Assumptions about Parametric Test

 Observations come from a normal population

 Sample size is large

 Assumptions about the population Parameters

Z-Test
Meaning and Definition
Prof. Fisher has given method of testing the
significance of the correlation coefficient in small
samples. According to this method the coefficient of
correlation is transformed into Z and hence the name z-
transformation . The statistic Z given by Prof. Fisher is
used to test:
1) Whether an observed value of r differ significantly from
some hypothetical value, or
2) Whether two sample values of r differ Significantly
Z test is applicable to both large and
small samples
For small sample
Applications of Z test
 Hypothesis Testing For One Proportion
 Hypothesis Testing For Two Proportions
 Hypothesis Testing For One mean
 Hypothesis Testing For Two means
 Hypothesis Testing For Two Standard Deviations
T-test

Meaning
If we take a very large number of small samples from
population and calculate the mean for each sample and
then plot the frequency distribution of these means the
resulting sampling distribution would be the Student’s
t-distribution or t-test.
Applications of T-test
 The parent population From which the sample is drawn

is normal
 The sample observations are random
 The population Standard deviation is not known
T-test Formula
F-test
Meaning
The object of the F-test is to discover whether the two independent estimates
of population variance differ significantly or whether the two samples may
be regarded as drawn from the normal population having the same variance.

Assumptions of F-test
 The theoretical assumptions on which an F-test is based are:

 The population for each sample must be normally distributed with identical

mean and variance.

 All sample observations must be randomly selected and independent.

 The ratio of σ12 to σ22 should be equal to or greater than 1.

(where σ12 > σ22)
 Since the F-distribution is always formed by a ratio of squared values, it can

never be negative.
 All F-distributions are uni-modal and are skewed to the right
F test formula
Non Parametric Test
Meaning
A non parametric test does not assume anything
about the underlying distribution. That’s compared
to parametric test, which makes assumptions about a
population’s parameters
When the word “non parametric” is used in stats, it
doesn’t quite mean that you know nothing about the
population. It usually means that you know the
population data does not have a normal distribution.
Important Non Parametric Test
Non-Parametric Test

One Sample Two Sample K-sample

One
Sample
Sign
Difference between Parametric Test and Non-
Parametric Test
 Unit-V
Interpretation and Report Writing
Data Interpretation
Meaning
Interpretation means explanation or finding out the
meaning. It involves drawing inferences from the
analysis of data often includes Simultaneous
interpretation of the results.
Need of Data Interpretation
 Understand abstract Principle
 Establishing explanatory concepts
 Making others Understand
 Establishing Hypothesis.
Prerequisites of Data Interpretation
 Data Should be Homogeneous
 Data should be Adequate
 Data should be Appropriate
 Data should be Scientifically Analyzed
Techniques of Data Interpretation
 Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer
of his diversified research findings.

 Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while

interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor
in understanding the problem under consideration.

 It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone

having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to
point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation.

 Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in
no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear
to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
Process of Data Interpretation
Assemble the Needed Information

Develop Findings

Develop Conclusions

Develop Recommendations
Guidelines For Making Valid Interpretation
 Data should be Homogeneous

 Data should be Adequate

 Data should be Appropriate

 Data should be Scientifically Analysed

Sources of Errors in Data Interpretation

 Personal Bias

 Type of Average used

 Drawing Wrong Inferences

 Drawing Unwarranted Conclusion

 Misuse of Statistical Concepts

 Use of Percentage

 False Generalizations
Research Report
Meaning
Research report is the written way of communicating the
results of an investigation. It is a document which reflects
about how the research is conducted, the care that has been
exercised throughout the study and the findings in a manner
that can be utilized for decision-making.

Definition
According to Lancaster, “A Report is a statement of
collected and considered facts, So drawn-up as to give clear
and concise information to persons who are not already in
possession of the full facts of the subject matter of the
Report”.
 Characteristics of Good Research Report

• Accuracy
• Clarity and Completeness
• Appearance
• Reliability
• Timelines
• Simplicity
• Brevity
• Comprehensibility
• Economy
• Logical Content
Types of Report

Summar Technica
y Report l Report
Types of
Report

Interim Popular
Report Report
Report Writing
Meaning
Research report is the written way of communicating
the results of an investigation. It is a document which
reflects about how the Research is conducted, the care
that has been exercised throughout the study and the
findings in manner that can be utilized for Decision-
Making.
Significance of Report Writing
Provide Details
Source of concise and Organised Data
Reflects Final Research
Tool of Evaluating Researcher
Bibliographical Evidence
Steps in Report Writing
Investigating the sources of Information

Taking Notes

Analyzing of Data

Making on Outline

Writing the Report

 Bibliography
and Title Page
References
Conclusion
and Table of
Recommenda Contents
tions

Layout of
Findings
Report Foreword

Statement of
Limitations
Objectives

Fieldwork Methodology
Precautions of Writing Good Research Report

 Concise and Complete

 Maintain Interest
 Avoid Technical Jargons
 Explanatory
 Objective Layout
 Free From Bias and Errors
 Logical Presentations
 Original and Specific
 Recommendations for Follow up
 Incorporate Technical Appendices
 Bibliography
 Proper Indexing
 Enticing Appearance
 Mention Limits and Constraints
 Reflect the Research Duties