Transducer & Sensors

Dr. Muhammad Zubair

[email protected]
[email protected]
 Transducers
A transducer is any device which converts one form of energy into
another.
Examples of common transducers include the following:
 A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a
loudspeaker converts electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound
energy to electrical energy and vice versa).
 A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple
converts thermal energy into electrical energy.
 An incandescent light bulb produces light by passing a current
through a filament. Thus, a light bulb is a transducer for
converting electrical energy into optical energy.
 An electric motor is a transducer for conversion of electricity into
mechanical energy or motion.
 Sensors
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal.
 This signal must be produced by some type of energy, such as heat, light,
motion, or chemical reaction.
 Once a sensor detects one or more of these signals (an input), it converts it
into an analog or digital representation of the input signal.
 Electrical sensors responds to a signal and convert it into an electrical
signal which is compatible with electronic circuits.
 We may say that a sensor is a translator of a generally nonelectrical value
into an electrical value. When we say “electrical,” we mean a signal which
can be channeled, amplified, and modified by electronic devices.
 The sensor’s output signal may be in the form of voltage, current, or
charge. These may be further described in terms of amplitude, frequency,
phase, or digital code. This set of characteristics is called the output signal
format. Therefore, a sensor has input properties (of any kind) and
electrical output properties.
Human Senses
`
• 1. Input voltage = 5 V
 Sensor Classification
All sensors may be of two kinds: passive and active.
Passive Sensor
A passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly
generates an electric signal in response to an external stimulus; that is, the
input stimulus energy is converted by the sensor into the output signal.
The examples are a thermocouple, a photodiode, and a piezoelectric
sensor.
Active Sensor
The active sensors require external power for their operation, which is
called an excitation signal. That signal is modified by the sensor to
produce the output signal.
In a RTD for measuring temperature voltage is required, change in
resistance measures the temperature.
 Absolute and Relative Sensors
Absolute Sensor
An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute physical scale that is
independent on the measurement conditions.
Example: of an absolute sensor is a thermistor: a temperature-sensitive resistor. Its
electrical resistance directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of Kelvin.
Relative Sensor
An Relative sensor detects a stimulus without reference to an absolute physical scale
that is it produces a signal that relates to some special case.
Example: A thermocouple is a relative sensor. It produces an electric voltage that is
function of a temperature gradient across the thermocouple wires. Thus, a thermocouple
output signal cannot be related to any particular temperature without referencing to a
known baseline.
Example of the absolute and relative sensors is a pressure sensor. An absolute-pressure
sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum—an absolute zero on a pressure scale.
A relative-pressure sensor produces signal with respect to a selected baseline that is not
zero pressure (e.g., to the atmospheric pressure).
Physical Principles of Sensing
Electric Charges, Fields, and Potentials
Capacitance
Dielectric Constant
Magnetism
Induction
Resistance
Piezoelectric Effect
Pyroelectric Effect
Hall Effect
Seebeck and Peltier Effects
Sound Waves
Light
Electric Charges, Fields, and Potentials
An object which carries a positive electric charge q. If a small
positive electric test charge q0 is positioned in the vicinity of a
charged object, it will be subjected to a repelling electric force.
If we place a negative charge on the object, it will attract the test
charge. In vector form, the repelling (or attracting) force is shown
as F .
The electric field in each point is defined through the force as

E= Electric field
F = Force
q = charge
Capacitance
The capacitor may be characterized by q, the magnitude of the
charge on either conductor, and by V , the positive potential
difference between the conductors. It should be noted that q is
not a net charge on the capacitor, which is zero. Further, V is not
the potential of either plate, but the potential difference between
them. The ratio of charge to voltage is constant for each
capacitor:

C is capacitance
q charge
V voltage
Magnetism
The intensity of a magnetic field at any particular point is defined
by a vector B, which is tangent to a magnetic field line at that
point. For a better visual representation, the number of field lines
per unit cross-sectional area (perpendicular to the lines) is
proportional to the magnitude of B. Where the lines are close
together, B is large, and where they are far apart, B is small.
The units of B is (Newton/coulomb)/(meter/second). In the SI
system, it is given the name tesla (abbreviated T).
Resistance
The opposition to the flow of current is known as resistance

V = IR
R = V/I
Piezoelectric effect
The piezoelectric effect is the generation of electric charge by a
crystalline material upon subjecting it to stress. The effect exists
in natural crystals, such as quartz (chemical formula SiO2), and
poled (artificially polarized) man-made ceramics and some
polymers, such as polyvinylidene flouride.
 Pyroelectric Effect
Pyroelectric materials are crystalline substances capable of
generating an electrical charge in response to heat flow. The
pyroelectric effect is very closely related to the piezoelectric effect.
Hall Effect
The effect is based on the interaction between moving electric
carriers and an external magnetic field. In metals, these carriers
are electrons. When an electron moves through a magnetic field,
a sideways force acts upon it:
F=qvB
where
q =1.6×10−19 C is an electronic charge,
v is the speed of an electron,
and B is the magnetic field
Seebeck and Peltier Effects
If we take a conductor and place one end of it into a cold place
and the other end into a warm place, energy will flow from the
warm to cold part. The energy takes the form of heat. The
intensity of the heat flow is proportional to the thermal
conductivity of the conductor. In addition, the thermal gradient
sets an electric field inside the conductor.
Sound
Alternate physical compression and expansion of medium
(solids, liquids, and gases) with certain frequencies are called
sound waves. The medium contents oscillate in the direction of
wave propagation; hence, these waves are called longitudinal
mechanical waves.
The name sound is associated with the hearing range of a human
ear, which is approximately from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
Longitudinal mechanical waves below 20 Hz are called
infrasound and above 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), they are called
ultrasound.
If the classification were made by other animals, like dogs, the
range of sound waves surely would be wider.
Light
Light is a very efficient form of energy for sensing a great variety
of stimuli.
Among many others, these include distance, motion, temperature,
and chemical composition. Light has an electromagnetic nature.
It may be considered a propagation of either quanta of energy or
electromagnetic waves.
Different portions of the wave-frequency spectrum are given
special names: ultraviolet (UV), visible, near-, mid-, and
farinfrared (IR), microwaves, radiowaves, and so forth
 Sensor Properties
• Sensitivity
• Stimulus range (span)
• Stability (short and long term)
• Resolution
• Accuracy
• Selectivity
• Speed of response
• Environmental conditions
• Overload characteristics
• Linearity
• Hysteresis
• Dead band
• Operating life
• Output format
• Cost, size, weight Other
 Sensor Characteristics
Span (Full-Scale Input)
A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor is
called a span or an input full scale (FS). It represents the highest
possible input value that can be applied to the sensor without causing
an unacceptably large inaccuracy.
Full-Scale Output
Full-scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between the
electrical output signals measured with maximum input stimulus and
the lowest input stimulus applied.
Accuracy
Avery important characteristic of a sensor is accuracy which really
means inaccuracy. Inaccuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a
value represented by the sensor from the ideal or true value at its
input.
 Accuracy

The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a number of forms:

1. Directly in terms of measured value ()
2. In percent of input span (full scale)
3. In terms of output signal
Calibration
If the sensor’s manufacturer’s tolerances and tolerances of the
interface (signal conditioning) circuit are broader than the
required system accuracy, a calibration is required.
Calibration Error
The calibration error is inaccuracy permitted by a manufacturer
when a sensor is calibrated in the factory.
Hysteresis
A hysteresis error is a deviation of the sensor’s output at a
specified point of the input signal when it is approached from the
opposite directions
For example,
a displacement sensor when the
object moves from left to right at a
certain point produces a voltage
which differs by 20 mV from that
when the object moves from right
to left. If the sensitivity of the
sensor is 10 mV/mm, the hysteresis
error in terms of displacement units
is 2 mm. Typical causes for
hysteresis are friction and structural
changes in the materials.
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity error is specified for sensors whose transfer function
may be approximated by a straight line
Saturation
Every sensor has its operating limits. Even if it is considered
linear, at some levels of the input stimuli, its output signal no
longer will be responsive. A further increase in stimulus does not
produce a desirable output. It is said that the sensor exhibits a
span-end nonlinearity or saturation
Repeatability
A repeatability ( reproducibility) error is caused by the inability
of a sensor to represent the same value under identical
conditions. It is expressed as the maximum difference between
output readings as determined by two calibrating cycles
Dead Band
The dead band is the insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range
of input signals. In that range, the output may remain near a
certain value (often zero) over an entire dead-band zone.
Resolution
Resolution describes the smallest increments of stimulus which
can be sensed. When a stimulus continuously varies over the
range, the output signals of some sensors will not be perfectly
smooth, even under the no-noise conditions. The output may
change in small steps.
 Special Properties
Special input properties may be needed to specify for some
sensors. For instance, light, detectors are sensitive within a
limited optical bandwidth. Therefore, it is appropriate to specify a
spectral response for them.
Output Impedance
Excitation
Dynamic Characteristics
Environmental Factors
Reliability
Application Characteristics
Uncertainty
Output Impedance
The output impedance Zout is important to know to better interface
a sensor with the electronic circuit. This impedance is connected
either in parallel with the input impedance Zin of the circuit
(voltage connection) or in series (current connection).
Excitation
Excitation is the electrical signal needed for the active sensor
operation. Excitation is specified as a range of voltage and/or
current.
For some sensors, the frequency of the excitation signal and its
stability must also be specified.
Variations in the excitation may alter the sensor transfer function
and cause output errors.
An example of excitation signal specification is as follows:
Maximum current through a thermistor
in still air 50 μA
in water 200 μA
Dynamic Characteristics
Under static conditions, a sensor is fully described by its transfer
function, span, calibration, and so forth. However, when an input
stimulus varies, a sensor response generally does not follow with
perfect fidelity. The reason is that both the sensor and its coupling
with the source of stimulus cannot always respond instantly. In
other words, a sensor may be characterized with a time-dependent
characteristic, which is called a dynamic characteristic.
The warm-up time is the time between applying electric power to
the sensor or excitation signal and the moment when the sensor can
operate within its specified accuracy. Many sensors have a
negligibly short warm-up time.
Environmental Factors
Storage conditions are non-operating environmental limits to
which a sensor may be subjected during a specified period
without permanently altering its performance under normal
operating conditions. Usually, storage conditions include the
highest and the lowest storage temperatures and maximum
relative humidifies at these temperatures.
Reliability
Reliability is the ability of a sensor to perform a required function
under stated conditions for a stated period. It is expressed in
statistical terms as a probability that the device will function
without failure over a specified time or a number of uses.
It should be noted that reliability is not a characteristic of drift or
noise stability. It specifies a failure, either temporary or
permanent, exceeding the limits of a sensor’s performance under
normal operating conditions.
• MTBF (mean time between failure)
Thermal shock or temperature cycling (TC)
 Testing of Sensors
• High temperature/high humidity while being fully electrically powered. For
instance, a sensor may be subjected to its maximum allowable temperature at
85–90% RH and kept under these conditions for 500 h.
• Mechanical shocks and vibrations may be used to simulate adverse
environmental conditions, especially in the evaluation wire bonds, adhesion of
epoxy, and so forth. A sensor may be dropped to generate high-level
accelerations (up to 3000g of force). The drops should be made on different
axes. Harmonic vibrations should be applied to the sensor over the range
which includes its natural frequency
• Extreme storage conditions may be simulated, for instance at +100 and −40◦C
• while maintaining a sensor for at least 1000 h under these conditions. This test
simulates storage and shipping conditions and usually is performed on non-
operating devices.
• Thermal shock or temperature cycling (TC) is subjecting a sensor to alternate
extreme conditions.
• To simulate sea conditions, sensors may be subjected to a salt spray
atmosphere for a specified time, (e.g., 24 h). This helps to uncover its
resistance to corrosion and structural defects.
Application Characteristics

Design, weight, and overall dimensions are geared to specific

areas of applications. Price may be a secondary issue when the
sensor’s reliability and accuracy are of paramount importance
Uncertainty

Nothing is perfect in this world, at least in the sense that we

perceive it. All materials are not exactly as we think they are.
Our knowledge of even the purest of the materials is always
approximate; machines are not perfect and never produce perfectly
identical parts according to drawings.
All components experience drifts related to the environment and
their aging; external interferences may enter the system and alter
its performance and modify the output signal. Workers are not
consistent and the human factor is nearly always present.