18csc303j -Database

Management Systems

Dr.B.Muruganantham
Associate Professor
Department of Computing Technology
SRM Institute of Science and Technology

Dr.B.Muruganantham
13-02-2022 1
Associate Professor / C.Tech
Outline of the Presentation
S-1 SLO-1 :What is Database Management System
SLO-2 :Advantage of DBMS over File Processing System
S-2 SLO-1 :Introduction and applications of DBMS
SLO-2 :Purpose of database system
S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands on sample exercise
S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database system Architecture
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Data Independence
S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Degrees of Data Abstraction
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Users and DBA
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Languages
S-14-15SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 3: SQL Data Control Language Commands and Transaction control
commands to the sample exercises
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S-1 SLO-1 : What is Database Management System ?
Data : It is a RAW FACT ( It won’t give any meaning )
Ex: 10, RAM, etc.
Information : Which gives meaning for Data
Ex: id = 10 , name = ‘RAM’ Distance in miles = 200, etc.
Database : Collection of meaningful interrelated information
Ex: DB2,ORACLE, SQL Server, MySQL, etc.
Database Management System ( DBMS ) :
• Database Management Systems (DBMS) are software systems used to store, retrieve, and
run queries on data which is stored in a database.
• A DBMS serves as an interface between an end-user and a database, allowing users to
create, read, update, and delete data in the database.
• DBMS manage the data, the database engine, and the database schema, allowing for
data to be manipulated or extracted by users and other programs.
• This helps provide data security, data integrity, concurrency, and uniform data
administration procedures.

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S-1 SLO-2 : Advantage of DBMS over File Processing System

What is File Processing / Management System? 

A File Processing / Management system is a DBMS that allows access to single files or tables at a time. In a File
System, data is directly stored in set of files.
It contains flat files that have no relation to other files (when only one table is stored in single file, then this file is
known as flat file). 

Limitations of File Processing System

✔ Data redundancy

✔ Data inconsistency

✔ Data Isolation

✔ Data Dependency on application programs

✔ Atomicity

✔ Data Security

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S-1 SLO-2 : Advantage of DBMS over File Processing System

Advantage of DBMS over file system

✔No redundant data

✔Data Consistency and Integrity

✔Data Concurrency

✔Data Security

✔Data Privacy

✔Easy access to data

✔Data Recovery

✔Flexible
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S-2 SLO-1 :Introduction and applications of DBMS

DBMS stands for Database Management System.

✔Database is collection of meaningful interrelated information.

✔DBMS is a collection of set of programs to store and access data

in an easy and effective manner from a database.

Need for DBMS:

✔Database systems are developed to deal huge amount of data.

✔Data to be stored and retrieved for data processing in an

effective manner.
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S-2 SLO-1 :Introduction and applications of DBMS

Why use DBMS

• To develop software applications In less time.

• Data independence and efficient use of data.

• For uniform data administration.

• For data integrity and security.

• For concurrent access to data, and data recovery from crashes.

• To use user-friendly declarative query language

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S-2 SLO-1 :Introduction and applications of DBMS
Applications of DBMS
Domain Usage of DBMS
Managing customer information, account activities, payments,
Banking
deposits, loans, etc.
Maintain and Manage the Passenger Manifesto, reservations and
Transportation
schedule information.
Universities Student information, course registrations, colleges and grades.
It helps to keep call records, monthly bills, maintaining balances,
Telecommunication
etc.
For storing information about stock, sales, and purchases of
Finance
financial instruments like stocks and bonds.
Sales To store customer details , product details & sales information.
It is used for the management of supply chain and for tracking
Manufacturing
production of items. Inventories status in warehouses.
Social Media Manage the user accounts, Security, Data access
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S-2 SLO-2 :Purpose of database system
Purpose of DBMS:
The purpose of DBMS is to transform the following −

✔Data into information.

• Raw fact is converted into Meaningful information
• For Example:
• The data ‘1000’ is converted into INR = ‘1000’
✔Information into knowledge.
• Using the information or comparing the information , can easily develop
knowledge
• For Example:
• INR 75 = 1 USD
• INR100 = 1.17 EURO

✔Knowledge to the action.

• Can predict the USD , EURO value in the mere future from history of information
• In 1900 what is the equivalent of INR for USD
• In 1950, 2000, etc.,
• What will be the equivalent value in 2030?
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S-2 SLO-2 :Purpose of database system

DATA

Purpose of DBMS:
The diagram given explains the process Information
as to how the transformation of data to
information to knowledge to action
happens respectively in the DBMS
knowledge

Action
( Processing)

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S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data
Data Abstraction
✔Data Abstraction is a process of hiding unwanted or irrelevant
details from the end user.
✔Data abstraction has different views and support in attaining data
independence which is used to enhance the security of data.
✔The database systems consist of complicated data structures and
relations.

• To make the easy access of data by the users the

complications are kept hidden and the remaining part of the
database is accessible to the them through data abstraction

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S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data
Levels of Abstraction

Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., student) is stored.

Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among
the data.
type student = record
student_reg_number : integer;
student_name : string;
student_degree : string;
customer_mobile : integer;
student_email : string
end;
View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide
information (such as an student’s mobile number /email) for security purposes.
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S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data
View of Data

View Level

View 1 View 2 View 3 View n

Logical level

Physical
Level

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S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data

Instances and Schemas

Schema – the logical structure of the database
Example: The database consists of information about a set of
students and departments and the relationship between them
There are two types of schemas are available in database
1. Physical Schema ( Database design at physical level and relates
with physical structure)
Datafiles, Control file, Redolog files, Tablespaces, Datablocks,
Segments, Extents
2. Logical Schema ( Database design at logical level and relates
with logical structures)
Tables, Views, Synonyms, Indexes, Clusters, Sequences

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S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data

Instances and Schemas

Instance – The actual content of the database at a particular point in

time

Physical Data Independence – The ability to modify the physical schema

without changing the logical schema

• Applications depend on the logical schema

• In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components

should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.

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S-3 SLO-1 & SLO2 :Views of data
Data Models
• Data models is , a collection of tools for describing Data and its
relationships, Semantics and Constraints
• There are different types of data models are available in DBMS
• Relational model
• Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
• Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-
relational)
• Semi structured data model (XML)
• Other older models:
• Network model
• Hierarchical model
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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
Structured Query Language ( SQL)
✔SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and
of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987
✔Common language for all Databases
✔Fourth generation Language
✔Non procedural Language
✔Commands like an normal English statements
✔SQL is not a case sensitive language
✔All SQL statements should ended with terminator , the default terminator is semi-colon (;)
✔Based on the operation SQL divided into three categories
• DDL ( Data Definition Language)
• DML ( Data Manipulation Language)
• DCL ( Data Control Language)
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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise

Data types in SQL ( ORACLE)

✔ CHAR

✔ VARCHAR2

✔ NUMBER

✔ DATE

✔ RAW

✔ LONG

✔ CLOB

✔ BLOB , etc.,

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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
Data Definition Language (DDL)

✔DDL is the subset of SQL and part of DBMS

✔DDL relates only with base tables structure and it is no where relates with the information stored in
the table.

✔Note : All the DDL command statements are AUTO COMMIT Statements

✔DDL consists of the following commands

• CREATE

• ALTER

• DROP

• TRUNCATE

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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
CREATE COMMAND
Used to create a new object / schema with a defined structure
Syntax : CREATE TABLE table_name (
    column1 datatype,
    column2 datatype,
    column3 datatype,
   ....
);

Example :
CREATE TABLE EMP
(EMPNO NUMBER(4) NOT NULL, ENAME VARCHAR2(10), JOB VARCHAR2(9),
MGR NUMBER(4), HIREDATE DATE, SAL NUMBER(7, 2), COMM NUMBER(7, 2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(2));

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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
ALTER COMMAND

✔Alter command used to modify the base table structure

✔Using this command

• a new column can be added with restrictions
• column data width can be increased / decreased with restrictions
• a column can be dropped

✔Two key words are using in this command

• ADD
• MODIFY
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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
ALTER COMMAND
SYNTAX

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD / MODIFY column_name datatype;

EXAMPLE 1: To add a new column in a table

ALTER TABLE emp ADD phone_no number(10);

EXAMPLE 2 : TO modify the existing column data width

ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY phone_no number(13);

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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
ALTER COMMAND

Syntax to DROP a column

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP column column_name;

Example :

ALTER TABLE emp DROP column phone_no;

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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
DROP COMMAND
It is used to remove the base table with records (information) from
database permanently.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE table_name ;

Example:

DROP TABLE emp;

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S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 1: SQL Data Definition Language Commands
on sample exercise
TRUNCATE COMMAND
Truncate command used to delete the records (information) from the
base table permanently and keeps the structure of the base table alone

Syntax:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

TRUNCATE TABLE emp;

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S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
There are four types users
accessing / managing the database
✔ Naïve Users
✔ Application Programmers
✔ Sophisticated Users
✔ Database Administrators
The database system is divided into
three components:

✔ Query Processor
✔ Storage Manager
✔ Disk Storage.
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S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Query Processor : 
It interprets the requests (queries) from user(s) via an application
program /interface into instructions.
It also executes the user request which is received from the DML
compiler. 
Query Processor contains the following components
  Name of the Component Purpose of the component
DML Compiler It processes the DML statements into low level
instruction
DDL Interpreter It processes the DDL statements into a set of table
containing meta data
Embedded DML Pre-compiler It processes DML statements embedded in an application
program into procedural calls.
Query Optimizer It executes the instruction generated by DML Compiler. 

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S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Storage Manager : 
✔It is an interface between the information stored in the database an
and the requests ( queries )

✔It is also known as Database Control System

✔It maintains the consistency and Integrity

✔The main responsibility is managing the data manipulation such
as addition deletion, modification , etc.,

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S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Storage Manager contains the following components
Components Purpose of the Components

Authorization It ensures role-based access control, i.e,. checks whether the particular
Manager  person is privileged to perform the requested operation or not.

Integrity Manager It checks the integrity constraints when the database is modified. 
Transaction Manager It controls concurrent access by performing the operations in a scheduled
way that it receives the transaction. Thus, it ensures that the database
remains in the consistent state before and after the execution of a
transaction. 
File Manager  It manages the file space and the data structure used to represent
information in the database. 

Buffer Manager It is responsible for cache memory and the transfer of data between the
secondary storage and main memory. 

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S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Disk Storage
✔Used to store all the information
✔It contains the following components 

Components Purpose of the Components

Data Files  It stores the data. 
Data Dictionary  It contains the information about the structure of
any database object. It is the repository of
information that governs the metadata. 
Indices It provides faster retrieval of data item.  
Statistical Data Contains the statistics of all information

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S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Data Independence
✔Data Independence is an important property of DBMS and also an advantage.

✔There are three levels in database:

1. Physical level / Low level ( Disk storage)

2. Conceptual level ( query / procedure / logics / etc.,)
3. Logical level / View level ( User Interface)

✔Data Independence is used to achieve the changes in physical level without

affecting logical level and vice versa.

✔There are two types of Data Independence in DBMS:

1. Physical Data Independence

2. Logical Data Independence

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S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Data Independence

Need of Data Independence

✔ To improve the quality of data

✔ Easy maintenance of DBMS

✔ To achieve database security

✔ Developer need not be worry about internal structure

✔ Easily making the changes in physical level to improve the performance

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S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Data Independence

Physical Data Independence

It is defined as to make the changes in the structure of the physical
level /low level of DBMS without affecting the logical level / view level.
Some of the changes in Physical level
✔Changing the storage devices
✔Changing the file organization techniques
✔Changing the data structures
✔Changing the data access method
✔Modifying indexes
✔Migrating the Database from one drive to another

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S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Data Independence

Logical Data Independence

It is defined as to make the changes in the structure of the logical level / view
level of DBMS without affecting the physical / low level.

Some of the changes in Logical level

✔ Add a new attribute in an entity set
✔ Modify / Delete an attribute
✔ Merging records
✔ Splitting records

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S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Data Independence
Difference between physical data independence and logical data independence

physical data independence logical data independence

Concerned with the storage of the Concerned with the structure of

data. data definition.

Easy to retrieve Difficult to retrieve because of

dependent on logical structure

Easy to achieve, compare with Difficult to achieve, compare with

logical data independence physical data independence

Concerned with physical schema Concerned with logical schema

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

To come across the limitations of file systems, there are lot of

researchers and software developers designed and developed various
data models.

The important and widely accepted models are:

✔Hierarchical
✔Network
✔Entity relationship
✔Relational
✔Object oriented

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
Hierarchical Model
✔ The first and fore most model of the DBMS.
✔ This model organizes the data in the hierarchical tree structure.
✔ This model is easy to understand with real time examples site map of a website

Example : For example the following is the representation of

relationships present on online clothes shopping

CLOTHES

MEN WOMEN

PANT AND SHIT VESTTI AND SHIRT SAREE

SALWAR

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
Features of a Hierarchical Model

✔ One-to-many relationship:
✔ Parent-Child Relationship
✔ Deletion Problem:
✔ Pointers

Advantages of Hierarchical Model

✔ Simple and fast traversal because of using tree structure

✔ Changes in parent node automatically reflected in child node

Disadvantages of Hierarchical Model

✔ Complexity
✔ Parent mode deleted automatically child node will be deleted

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
Network Model
✔ Network model is an extension of hierarchical model.
✔ This model was recommended as the best before relationship model.
✔ Same like hierarchical model, the only difference between these two models are a
record can have more than one parent
✔ For Example consider the following diagram a student entity has more than one
parent
COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT LIBRARY

STUDENT

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

Features of a Network Model

✔ Manage to Merge more Relationships

✔ More paths

✔ Circular Linked List

Advantages of Network Model

✔ Data access is faster

✔ Because of parent child relationship , the changes in parent reflect in child

Disadvantages of Network Model

✔ More complex because of more and more relations

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model)

✔ This model is a high level data model

✔ Represents the real – world problem as a pictorial representation

✔ Easy to understand by the developers about the specification

✔ It is like a visualization tool to represent a specific database

✔ It contains three components

1. Entities

2. Attributes

3. Relationships

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
Example for ER Diagram ( Faculty and Department entity set)
Dept_ID

Faculty_Id Faculty_Name

Works
Faculty Department
for

Phone_ No

Salary Dept_Location
Dept_Name

Date_of_ Birth

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

In the above example:

✔There are two entities , Faculty and Department
✔The attributes of Faculty entities are
• Faculty_Id
• Faculty_Name
• Phone_No
• Date_of_birth
• Salary
✔The attributes of Department entities are
• Dept_ID
• Dept_Name
• Dept_Location
✔Relationship : Faculty works for a department

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

Features of ER Model

✔ Graphical representation
✔ Visualization
✔ Good Database design (Widely used)

Advantages of ER Model

✔ Very Simple
✔ Better communication
✔ Easy to convert to any model

Disadvantage of ER Model

✔ No industry standard
✔ Hidden information

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
Relational Model
✔ Widely used model
✔ Data are represented as row-wise and column-wise ( 2 Dimensional Array)
Example : EMP (Employee) Table
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 - 20

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 - 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 - 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 - 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000 - 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT - 17-NOV-81 5000 - 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100 - 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 - 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 - 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 - 10

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

Relational Model
✔Each row is known as RECORD or TUPLE

✔Each Column is known as ATTRIBUTE or FILED

✔The collection of attributes are called as record – An Entity

✔The collection of records are called as Table – Entity Set

✔In the above example:

Table – EMP

Attributes – Empno, Ename, Sal,….

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models

Features of Relational Model

✔ Records

✔ Attributes

Advantages of Relational Model

✔ Simple

✔ Scalable

✔ Structured format

✔ Isolation

Disadvantages of Relational Model

✔Hardware overheads

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S-8 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : The evolution of Data Models
Object Oriented Model
✔ The real- time problems are easily represented through
object-oriented data model which is an OBJECT.
✔ In this Model, the data and its relationship present in the single structure
✔ Complex data like images, audio, videos can be stored easily
✔ Objects connected through links using common attribute(s)
✔ Example : Three Objects Faculty, Department and Campus linked using common attribute

FACULTY
DEPARTMENT CAMPUS
ATTRIBUTES
Faculty_ID ATTRIBUTES ATTRIBUTES
Faculty_Name Dept_ID Campus_ID
Faculty_Designation Dept_Name Campus_Name
Faculty _Sal Dept_Location Campus_Location
Faculty_DOB Campus_ID
Faculty_MobileNo Methods
Methods New Campus Creation
Dept_ID Department Change Location Change
Methods Campus Change
Teaching_Subjects
Designation_Change

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
Consider EMP table for DML operations
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPT
NO
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 - 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 - 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 - 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 - 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000 - 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT - 17-NOV-81 5000 - 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100 - 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 - 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 - 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 - 10

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
DML Commands are relates only with base table information ( value in an
attribute)
There are four commands in DML:
1. INSERT

2. UPDATE

3. DELETE

4. SELECT
✔Where clause ( Conditional retrieval )

✔Order by clause ( Retrieval in Ascending or Descending Order )

✔Group by clause ( Retrieval of distinct values by considering groups )

✔Having clause ( Followed by Group by clause with COUNT function )

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands

INSERT COMMAND
✔ It relates only with new records.

✔ Only one row can be inserted at a time

✔ Multiple rows can be inserted using “&” symbol one by one

✔ Can insert to entire table

✔ Can insert in selected columns with some restrictions

✔ Must follow the order of the column specified in the query statement

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
INSERT COMMAND

Syntax:

INSERT INTO <table_name> (column_name1 <datatype>,

column_name2 <datatype>,
...,
column_name_n <datatype>)
VALUES Note :
(value1,
▪ Number values can be
value2, inserted as integer or
..., float
value n);
▪ Char and Date values
must be in single quote

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
INSERT COMMAND

Example 1: To insert a record using all fields in EMP table

INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (7369, 'SMITH', 'CLERK', 7902, '17-12-1980‘, 800, NULL, 20);
(OR)
INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,MGR,HIREDATE,SAL,COMM,DEPTNO)
VALUES (7369, 'SMITH', 'CLERK', 7902, '17-12-1980', 800, NULL, 20);

Example 2: To insert a record using selected fields in EMP table

INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME) VALUES (7499, 'ALLEN);

Note : When a record is inserted using selected fields, it must include

NOT NULL and Primary key fields.
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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands

Example 3: To insert multiple records using all fields in EMP table

INSERT INTO EMP values

(&EMPNO,’&ENAME’,’&JOB’,&MGR,’&HIREDATE’,&SAL,&COMM,&DEPTNO) ;

NOTE : ‘&’ (Ampersand) symbol used to ask

Enter value for followed by the string during runtime.

The input value will be store in the appropriate field using bind
variable ( :OLD and :NEW)

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
Update command
✔ It works with only existing records
✔ It works only column wise
✔ It is used to modify the column values ( increase / decrease / change)
Syntax
UPDATE <table_name> set <field_name> = value [ where <condition>];

Note : Update command without where condition will update all the records.
Update command with where condition will update the records which are satisfy the
condition
Example 1:
UPDATE emp set comm = 2000 ; ( Update all the records in EMP table )
Example 2 :
Update emp set comm = 1000 where empno = 7369;
(Update the records having the empno as 7369)
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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands

Delete command
✔ It works only with existing records
✔ It works only with row wise
✔ It not possible to delete a single column in a row
Syntax
DELETE from <table_name> [ where <condition>];
Note : Delete command with out where condition will delete all the records in the table.
Delete command with where condition will delete the selected records which are
satisfy the condition.
Example 1: DELETE from emp; ( All records will be deleted from emp )
Example 2: DELETE from emp where empno = 7369;
( Those records holding the value in the field empno as 7369 will be deleted )

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands

SELECT COMMAND
✔Works with existing records

✔Works with row wise and column wise

✔Works with multiple tables

✔Never affect / change / update / modification in the data base

✔Using this command , we can select a column , multiple
columns, all columns, single row, multiple row, all rows
✔Specially called as “QUERY STATEMENT”

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands

SELECT COMMAND
Syntax
SELECT column_list FROM table-name
[WHERE Clause]
[GROUP BY clause]
[HAVING clause]
[ORDER BY clause];

NOTE : To retrieve all the column from the table ‘ * ’ symbol can be
used instead of specifying the column_list.

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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
SELECT COMMAND

Example 1: To retrieve all the columns and rows from emp table
SELECT * from emp; ( ‘*’ stands from all columns and rows )

Example 2: To select retrieve the specific columns from all rows

SELECT empno,ename from emp;

Select command with where clause

Example 3: To retrieve the records from emp table which record holds the salary value greater
than 1000;
SELECT * from emp WHERE sal> 1000;

Example 4: To retrieve the columns empno and ename from emp table which records holds the
value as CLERK in job column.
SELECT empno, ename from emp WHERE job = ‘CLERK’
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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
SELECT COMMAND
Select command with order by clause
Example 5 : To retrieve the records from emp table in ascending order
using empno
SELECT * from emp order by empno asc;
(OR)
SELECT * from emp order by empno;
Example 6: To retrieve the records from emp table in ascending order
using job and empno
SELECT * from emp order by job,empno asc;
(OR)
SELECT * from emp order by job,empno;
NOTE : Ascending order is default condition, no need to specify
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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands

SELECT COMMAND
Select command with order by clause

Example 7 : To retrieve the records from emp table in descending order using empno.
SELECT * from emp order by empno desc;

Example 8: To retrieve the records from emp table in descending order using job and
empno
SELECT * from emp order by job desc,empno desc;

Example 8: To retrieve the records from emp table in ascending order using job and
descending order empno
SELECT * from emp order by job asc,empno desc;
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S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 2: SQL Data Manipulation Language Commands
SELECT COMMAND
Select command with group by clause
Example 9: To retrieve the different jobs from emp table
SELECT job from emp group by job;

Example 10: To retrieve the different jobs and its average salary from emp table
SELECT job, avg(sal) from emp group by job;

Select command with group by and having clause

Example 11: To retrieve the different jobs from emp table where the total
numbers in a group is greater than 2;
SELECT job from emp group by job having count(job) >2;
NOTE : Count is built-in group function

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S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Degrees of Data Abstraction

✔Data abstraction is the idea that a database design begins with a

high level view and as it approaches implementation level, the level
of detail increases. 
✔In 1970, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC)
established a framework for database design based on the degrees
of abstraction.
✔The ANSI/SPARC architecture is composed of four levels of data
abstraction; these levels are external, conceptual, internal, and
physical

Reference : https://databasemanagement.fandom.com/wiki/Degrees_of_Abstraction
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S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Degrees of Data Abstraction

✔ The External Model is the end users' view of the data. The end users view of data
usually applies to their specific business needs and those of their organizational
unit.

✔ The Conceptual Model is the database as seen by the specific DBMS. What sets
the internal model apart from the external and conceptual is its reliance on its
software platform.

✔ The goal in designing the internal model is to achieve logical independence, where
the
internal model can be changed without affecting conceptual model.

Reference : https://databasemanagement.fandom.com/wiki/Degrees_of_Abstraction
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S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Degrees of Data Abstraction

✔ The Physical Model is the final and lowest level of abstraction. This is the model
which describe such implementation level design as how the data is stored on
media and what media to use. This level of abstraction is reliant on software and
hardware.
Note:
▪ If the rules established by the ANSI/SPARC are followed, the database is
easily scalable and upgradeable.
▪ A common need is for the ease of upgradability in the physical model.
▪ As technology improves and as the database grows and needs more
processing power and space it is important to be able to upgrade the
hardware without worrying about needing to redesign parts or the entire
database.

Reference : https://databasemanagement.fandom.com/wiki/Degrees_of_Abstraction
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S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Users and DBA

Database Users
✔Naive Users

✔Application Programmers 

✔Sophisticated Users

✔Native Users

✔Specialized Users 

✔Stand-alone Users

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S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Users and DBA
Naive Users
✔ Those who don’t have any knowledge about DBMS
✔ Use DBMS applications frequently
✔ Mostly using the internet browser as an interface to access the database
✔ They don’t have any privileges to modify the database, simply use the application
✔ Example : Railway booking users, Clerks in bank accessing database

Application Programmers
✔ Users who develop DBMS applications.
✔ They are backend programmers
✔ Programs can be written in any programming languages like C++, JAVA, Python, PHP

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S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Users and DBA

Sophisticated Users
✔ Having knowledge about database and DBMS
✔ They can create their own applications based on requirements
✔ They don’t write codes in any programming languages, but able to manage using queries
✔ Example : Business Analyst, Researchers

Native Users
✔ These are the users, who use the existing database applications
✔ They don’t write any codes or queries
✔ Example: Library Management Systems, Inventory Control Systems

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S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Users and DBA

Specialized Users
✔ These are also sophisticated users, but they write special database application
programs.
✔ They are the developers who develop the complex programs to the requirement.

Stand-alone Users
✔ These users will have a stand-alone database for their personal use.
✔ These kinds of the database will have readymade database packages
which will have menus and graphical interfaces.

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S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Users and DBA

Database Administrator ( DBA)

✔DBA is a person or a group who define and manage the database in all three levels.
✔DBA can create / modify /remove the users based on the requirements.
✔DBA is the super user having all the privileges of DBMS
Responsibilities of DBA
✔Install the Database
✔Upgrade the Database
✔Design and Implementation
✔Database tuning
✔Migrating the Database
✔User Management
✔Backup and Recovery
✔Security of the Database in all access points
✔Documentation

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S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Languages

The common language is Structured Query Language

It is categorized into three types based on operations

✔Data Definition Language (DDL) – To specify the database
schema
✔Data Manipulation Language (DML) – To express the database
queries and updates.
✔Data Control Language (DCL) - To manage the database
operations

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S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL)

✔ Can specify the storage structure and access methods used by the database
system by a set of statements in a special type of DDL called a data storage and
definition language.

✔ The values stored in a database must satisfy certain constraints to maintain

consistency and reliability

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S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Different types of constraints
✔Domain Constraints
• Data types , Not Null, Check ,Unique, Primary key
✔Referential Integrity constraints
• Foreign key
✔Assertions
• Any condition that the database must satisfy.
• Domain and Referential Integrity constraints are special forms of assertion.
✔Authorization
• User Authorization
• Read Authorization
• Insert Authorization
• Update Authorization
• Delete Authorization
Note : The output of the DDL will be stored in Data Dictionary which contains all the details
about the data, like meta-data

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S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Database Languages
Data Manipulation Language
✔ Enables users to access or manipulate data as organized by the
appropriate data model.
✔ The followings are the different types of access

• Retrieval of information stored in the database ( SELECT)

• Insertion of new information into the database (INSERT)

• Deletion of information from the database (DELETE)

• Modification of information stored in the database (UPDATE)

✔There are basically two types:

• Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed and how to
get those data.

• Declarative DMLs (also referred to as nonprocedural DMLs) require a user to

specify what data are needed without specifying how to get those data.
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S-14-15SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 3: SQL Data Control Language
commands and Transaction control commands to the sample
exercises
Data Control Languages

✔Used to give / get back / control the privileges of an object by the owner

GRANT : To give access privileges of an object to other user by the owner

Syntax : GRANT [ ALL / INSERT /UPDATE /DELETE /SELECT ]

on <OBJECT_NAME> to <USER_NAME>;

Example: GRANT all on emp to scott;

REVOKE : To get back all the privileges from the user who has been granted

Syntax : REVOKE [ ALL / INSERT /UPDATE /DELETE /SELECT ]

on <OBJECT_NAME> from <USER_NAME>;

Example: REVOKE all on emp from scott;

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S-14-15SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 3: SQL Data Control Language
commands and Transaction control commands to the sample
exercises

Transaction Control Language

✔ To control the database operation

• COMMIT:  Commits a Transaction. Save the changes permanently , can’t

rollback

• ROLLBACK: Rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.

• SAVEPOINT: Sets a savepoint within a transaction. Rolled back from the

specified savepoint

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