18CSS202J- COMPUTER COMMUNICATION

UNIT III
• Line Coding Schemes: Unipolar, Polar and Bipolar.
• Amplitude Shift Keying Technique, Frequency Shift
Keying Technique and Phase Shift Keying Technique
• Pulse Code Modulation, Delta Modulation
• Guided Media: Twisted pair, coaxial and Fiber optic
cables.
• Unguided Media: Radio waves, Microwaves and
Infrared.
 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Data can be either digital or analog. Signals that represent data can
also be digital or analog. In this section, we see how we can
represent digital data by using digital signals.

The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block

coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always needed; block coding
and scrambling may or may not be needed.

Line coding is used to convert digital data to a digital signal. Line

Coding Scheme is discussed here
 Line Coding

• Line coding is the process of converting

digital data to digital signals
• Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital
data) into a sequence of signals that denote
the 1’s and 0’s.
• For example a high voltage level (+V) could
represent a “1” and a low voltage level (0 or
-V) could represent a “0”.
Line coding and decoding
 Characteristics of different
line coding schemes
1. Signal Element Versus Data Element
A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information: this is
the bit. In digital data communications, a signal element carries data elements.

In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are
what we can send. Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.

The ratio represented by r is defined as the number of data elements carried by each
signal element
 Data Rate Versus Signal Rate

• The data rate defines the number of data

elements (bits) sent in 1s. The unit is bits per
second (bps).
• The signal rate is the number of signal
elements sent in 1s. The unit is the baud.
• The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate.
• the signal rate is sometimes called the pulse
rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
• One goal in data communications is to increase
the data rate while decreasing the signal rate.
• Increasing the data rate increases the speed of
transmission; decreasing the signal rate
decreases the bandwidth requirement.
• the relationship between data rate (N) and
signal rate (S)
S = N/r
the average signal rate is defined as
Save = c X N X (1/r) baud
C – case factor
4.8
 Mapping Data symbols onto
Signal levels
• A data symbol (or element) can consist of a
number of data bits:
– 1 , 0 or
– 11, 10, 01, ……
• A data symbol can be coded into a single signal
element or multiple signal elements
– 1 -> +V, 0 -> -V
– 1 -> +V and -V, 0 -> -V and +V
• The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements
carried by a signal element.
4.9
 Example

A signal is carrying data in which one data

element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1).
If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c
is 1/2 . The baud rate is then

4.10
 Note

Although the actual bandwidth of a

digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.

4.11
 Example

The maximum data rate of a channel (see Chapter

3) is Nmax = 2 × B × log2 L (defined by the Nyquist
formula). Does this agree with the previous
formula for Nmax?
Solution
A signal with L levels actually can
carry log2L bits per level. If each
level corresponds to one signal element
and we assume the average case (c =
1/2), then we have

4.12
 Considerations for choosing a good
signal element referred to as line
encoding
• Baseline wandering - a receiver will evaluate the
average power of the received signal (called the
baseline) and use that to determine the value of
the incoming data elements. If the incoming signal
does not vary over a long period of time, the
baseline will drift and thus cause errors in
detection of incoming data elements.
• A good line encoding scheme will prevent long
runs of fixed amplitude.

4.13
 Line encoding characteristics

• DC components - when the voltage level

remains constant for long periods of time,
there is an increase in the low frequencies
of the signal. Most channels are bandpass
and may not support the low frequencies.
• This will require the removal of the dc
component of a transmitted signal.

4.14
 Line encoding characteristics

• Self synchronization - the clocks at the

sender and the receiver must have the
same bit interval.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will
misinterpret the incoming bit stream.

4.15
Figure 4.3 Effect of lack of synchronization

4.16
 Example 4.3

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1

percent faster than the sender clock. How many
extra bits per second does the receiver receive if
the data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate
is 1 Mbps?
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001
bps instead of 1000 bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps

instead of 1,000,000 bps.

4.17
 Line encoding characteristics

• Error detection - errors occur during

transmission due to line impairments.
• Some codes are constructed such that
when an error occurs it can be detected.

4.18
 Line encoding characteristics

• Noise and interference - there are line

encoding techniques that make the
transmitted signal “immune” to noise and
interference.
• This means that the signal cannot be
corrupted, it is stronger than error
detection.

4.19
Figure Line coding schemes

4.20
 Unipolar
• All signal levels are on one side of the time axis ,
either above or below.
• +v define 1 and –v define 0.
• NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of
this code. The signal level does not return to zero
at a middle of the bit.
• Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC
components. It has no synchronization or any
error detection. It is simple but costly in power
consumption.
4.21
Figure Unipolar NRZ scheme

4.22
 Polar - NRZ
• The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
• Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two
voltages. E.g. +V for 0 and -V for 1.
• There are two versions:
– NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol
and negative for the other
– NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in
polarity determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1”
symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.

4.23
Figure 4.6 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

4.24
 Note

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.

4.25
 Note

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average

signal rate of N/2 Bd.

4.26
 Note

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC

component problem and baseline
wandering, it is worse for NRZ-L. Both
have no self synchronization &no error
detection. Both are relatively simple to
implement.

4.27
 Example

A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data.

What are the average signal rate and minimum
bandwidth?

Solution
The average signal rate is S= N / 2 =
500 kbaud. The minimum bandwidth for
this average baud rate is Bmin = S =
500 kHz.

Note c = 1/2 for the avg. case as worst

case
4.28
is 1 and best case is 0
 Polar - RZ
• The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three
voltage values. +, 0, -.
• Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either
from high to zero or from low to zero.
• This scheme has more signal transitions (two per
symbol) and therefore requires a wider
bandwidth.
• No DC components or baseline wandering.
• Not synchronized.
• More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has
no error detection capability.

4.29
Figure 4.7 Polar RZ scheme

4.30
 Polar - Biphase: Manchester and
Differential Manchester
• Manchester coding consists of combining the
NRZ-L and RZ schemes.
– Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from
high to low or low to high. Uses only two voltage levels.
• Differential Manchester coding consists of
combining the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
– Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But
the level at the beginning of the symbol is determined
by the symbol value. One symbol causes a level change
the other does not.

4.31
Figure 4.8 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

4.32
 Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

4.33
 Note

The minimum bandwidth of Manchester

and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ. The is no DC component
and no baseline wandering. None of
these codes has error detection.

4.34
 For example: B8ZS substitutes eight
consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.
The V stands for violation, it violates the
line encoding rule
B stands for bipolar, it implements the
bipolar line encoding rule

4.36
Figure 4.19 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

4.37
 HDB3 substitutes four consecutive
zeros with 000V or B00V depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.
If # of non zero pulses is even the
substitution is B00V to make total # of
non zero pulse even.
If # of non zero pulses is odd the
substitution is 000V to make total # of
non zero pulses even.
4.38
Figure 4.20 Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

Even – B00V +  -00-

-  +00+

Odd – 000V +  000+

-  000-

4.39
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Topics to be discussed
 Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Amplitude Shift Keying
 Frequency Shift Keying
 Phase Shift Keying
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 Digital to Analog Conversion
• Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal is
traditionally called digital to- analog conversion
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing
one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on
the information in digital data.
• Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.
• A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the function of
transporting the digital data in an analog waveform.
• The analog carrier signal is manipulated to uniquely
identify the digital data being carried.
 Figure 1 Digital-to-analog conversion

Figure 1 shows the relationship between the digital information, the

digital-to-analog modulating process, and the resultant analog signal.
 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

• Four mechanisms are used for modulating digital

data into an analog signal
amplitude shift keying (ASK)
frequency shift keying (FSK)
phase shift keying(PSK)
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM – combines
ASK &PSK)
QAM is the most efficient and commonly used today
Figure 2 Types of digital-to-analog
conversion
 Bit and Baud rates and the carrier
signal
• Bit rate, N, is the number of bits per second
(bps). Also called as Data Rate

• Baud rate, S, is the number of signal elements

per second (bauds). Also called as Signal Rate
 Cond..
• The relationship between them is
S=Nx1/r bauds
Where
N - data rate
r - number of data bits per signal element.
• In the analog transmission of digital data, the signal or baud rate is less
than or equal to the bit rate.
• Value of r in analog transmission is r =log2 L, where L is the type of signal
element, not the level.

NOTE: In transportation, a baud is corresponding to a vehicle, and a bit is

corresponding to a passenger. We need to maximize the number of people per car to
reduce the traffic.
Example 1

• An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal

element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate.
• Solution
• In this case, r = 4, S = 1000,
and N is unknown. We can find
the value of N from
Example 2
• An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps
and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many
data elements are carried by each signal
element? How many signal elements do we
need?
• Solution
• In this example, S = 1000, N =8000, and r and
L are unknown. We find first the value of r
and then the value of L.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase
remain constant while the amplitude changes.
• ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a
carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in the digital
signal.
• For example: a digital “1” could not affect the signal,
whereas a digital “0” would, by making it zero.
• The line encoding will determine the values of the
analog waveform to reflect the digital data being
carried.
 Bandwidth of ASK
• The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to the
signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S
• “d” is depends on modulation and filtering
process
• “d” value lies between 0 and 1.
 Binary ASK (BASK)
• ASK is normally implemented using only two
levels.
• This is referred to as binary amplitude shift
keying or on-off keying (OOK).
• The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0
• the other is the same as the amplitude of the
carrier frequency
Figure 3 Binary amplitude shift keying
Figure 4 Implementation of binary ASK
• If digital data are presented as a unipolar NRZ
digital signal with a high voltage of I V and a
low voltage of 0 V
• Implementation can achieved by multiplying
the NRZ digital signal by the carrier signal
coming from an oscillator.
• When the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 1, the
amplitude of the carrier frequency is held;
• when the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 0, the
amplitude of the carrier frequency is zero.
Example 3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our
data by using ASK with d =I?
Solution
• The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz.
This means that our carrier frequency can be at fe
=250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to
find the bit rate (with d =1 and r =1).
Example 4
• In data communications, we normally use full-
duplex links with communication in both
directions. We need to divide the bandwidth
into two with two carrier frequencies, as
shown in Figure 5. The figure shows the
positions of two carrier frequencies and the
bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each
direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with
a data rate of 25 kbps in each direction.
Figure 5 Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK used
in Example 4
 Frequency Shift Keying
• In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied to represent data.
• The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for
the duration of one signal element, but changes for
the next signal element if the data element changes.
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for
all signal elements.
• The digital data stream changes the frequency of the
carrier signal, fc.
• For example,
a “1” could be represented by f1=fc +f,
a “0” could be represented by f =f -f.
Figure 6 Binary frequency shift keying
(BFSK)
 Bandwidth of FSK
• If the difference between the two frequencies
(f1 and f2) is 2f, then the required BW B will
be:
B = (1+d)xS +2f
Example 5
• We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz
which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should
be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
• This problem is similar to
Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The
midpoint of the band is at 250
kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50
kHz; this means
 Coherent and Non Coherent
• Two implementations of BFSK:
noncoherent and coherent.
• In a non-coherent FSK scheme, when we
change from one frequency to the other, we
do not adhere to the current phase of the
signal.
• In coherent FSK, the switch from one
frequency signal to the other only occurs at
the same phase in the signal.
• Noncoherent BFSK can be implemented by treating
BFSK as two ASK modulations and using two carrier
frequencies.
• Coherent BFSK can be implemented by using one
voltage-controlled oscillator (VeO) that changes its
frequency according to the input voltage.
• Figure 7 shows the simplified idea behind the
second implementation.
• The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal.
• When the amplitude of NRZ is zero, the oscillator
keeps its regular frequency;
• when the amplitude is positive, the frequency is
increased.
Figure 7 Implementation of BFSK
 Multi level FSK
• Similarly to ASK, FSK can use multiple bits per
signal element.
• That means we need to provision for multiple
frequencies, each one to represent a group of
data bits.
• The bandwidth for FSK can be higher
B = (1+d)xS + (L-1)/2f = LxS
Example 6
• We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit
rate of 3 Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10
MHz. Calculate the number of levels (different
frequencies), the baud rate, and the bandwidth.
Solution
• We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud
rate is S = 3 Mbps/3 = 1 Mbaud.
This means that the carrier
frequencies must be 1 MHz apart
(2Δf = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is
B = 8 × 1M = 8M. Figure 8 shows
the allocation of frequencies
Figure 8 Bandwidth of MFSK used in
Example 6
 Phase Shift Keying
• In PSK, the phase of the carrier is varied to
represent two or more different signal elements.
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain
constant as the phase changes.
• Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK
• We vary the phase shift of the carrier signal to
represent digital data.
• The bandwidth requirement, B is:
B = (1+d)xS
• PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that
vulnerable to noise, which changes amplitude of
the signal.
 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
• The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we
have only two signal elements, one with
a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of
180°
• Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK
• PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK.
• PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need
two carrier signals.
Figure 9 Binary phase shift keying
Figure 10 Implementation of BASK
• The implementation of BPSK is as simple as
that for ASK
• The reason is that the signal element with
phase 180° can be seen as the complement of
the signal element with phase 0°
• The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the
carrier frequency;
• the 1 bit (positive voltage) is represented by a
phase starting at 0°;
• the 0 bit (negative voltage) is represented by a
phase starting at 180°.
 Quadrature PSK
• To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or
more bits onto one signal element.
• In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that
every two incoming bits are split up and PSK a
carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is
phase shifted 90o from the other - in
quadrature.
• The two PSKed signals are then added to
produce one of 4 signal elements. L = 4 here.
Figure 11 QPSK and its implementation
Example 7
• Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at
12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
Solution
• For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal
element. This means that r = 2. So the signal
rate (baud rate) is S = N × (1/r) = 6 Mbaud.
With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz.
 Constellation Diagrams
• A constellation diagram helps us to define the
amplitude and phase of a signal when we are
using two carriers, one in quadrature of the
other.
• The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier and
the Y-axis represents quadrature carrier.
Figure 12 Concept of a constellation diagram
Example 8
• Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK
(OOK), BPSK, and QPSK signals.
Solution
• Figure 5.13 shows the three
constellation diagrams.
Figure 13 Three constellation diagrams
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK.

Figure 14 Constellation diagrams for some

QAMs
Bandwidth for QAM
• The minimum bandwidth required for QAM
transmission is the same as that required
for ASK and PSK transmission.
• QAM has the same advantages as PSK over
ASK.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

• A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because

it is more robust to noise and can easily be recovered,
corrected and amplified. For this reason, the tendency
today is to change an analog signal to digital data. In
this section we describe two techniques, pulse code
modulation and delta modulation.
• Topics discussed in this section:
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)
 PCM
• PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog
signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
 Before we sample, we have to filter the signal to
limit the maximum frequency of the signal as it
affects the sampling rate.
 Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the
signal, i.e. remove high frequency components that
affect the signal shape.
Components of PCM encoder
 Sampling
• Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
• Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
• fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.
• There are 3 sampling methods:
– Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
– Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
– Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude
value
• The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation
PAM and the outcome is a signal with analog (non
integer) values
Three different sampling methods for PCM
 Note
• According to the Nyquist theorem, the
sampling rate must be
• at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
 Example 1
• For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us
sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: f s = 4f (2
times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.

• It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a

good approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary.
Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce a
signal that looks like the original sine wave.
Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates
 Example 2
• Consider the revolution of a hand of a clock. The second hand
of a clock has a period of 60 s. According to the Nyquist
theorem, we need to sample the hand every 30 s (Ts = T or fs =
2f ). In Figure 4.25a, the sample points, in order, are 12, 6, 12,
6, 12, and 6. The receiver of the samples cannot tell if the
clock is moving forward or backward. In part b, we sample at
double the Nyquist rate (every 15 s). The sample points are 12,
3, 6, 9, and 12. The clock is moving forward. In part c, we
sample below the Nyquist rate (Ts = T or fs = f ). The sample
points are 12, 9, 6, 3, and 12. Although the clock is moving
forward, the receiver thinks that the clock is moving
backward.
4.25 Sampling of a clock with only one hand
 Quantization
• Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying
amplitude values ranging between two limits: a
min and a max.
• The amplitude values are infinite between the two
limits.
• We need to map the infinite amplitude values
onto a finite set of known values.
• This is achieved by dividing the distance between
min and max into L zones, each of height 
 = (max - min)/L
 Quantization Levels
• The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value
from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L values)
• Each sample falling in a zone is then
approximated to the value of the midpoint
 Quantization Zones
• Assume we have a voltage signal with
amplitudes Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
• We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
• Zone width = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
• The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10 to -
5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10, +10 to +15, +15
to +20
• The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5, 2.5,
7.5, 12.5, 17.5
 Assigning Codes to Zones
• Each zone is then assigned a binary code.
• The number of bits required to encode the zones, or the
number of bits per sample as it is commonly referred to,
is obtained as follows:
nb = log2 L
• Given our example, nb = 3
• The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000, 001, 010,
011, 100, 101, 110, and 111
• Assigning codes to zones:
– 000 will refer to zone -20 to -15
– 001 to zone -15 to -10, etc.
Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
 Quantization Error
• When a signal is quantized, we introduce an
error - the coded signal is an approximation of
the actual amplitude value.
• The difference between actual and coded value
(midpoint) is referred to as the quantization
error.
• The more zones, the smaller  which results in
smaller errors.
• BUT, the more zones the more bits required to
encode the samples -> higher bit rate
 Quantization Error and SNQR
• Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer more
from quantization error as the error range: /2, is fixed
for all signal levels.
• Non linear quantization is used to alleviate this
problem. Goal is to keep SNQR fixed for all sample
values.
• Two approaches:
– The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve. Smaller
’s at lower amplitudes and larger’s at higher amplitudes.
– Companding: The sample values are compressed at the
sender into logarithmic zones, and then expanded at the
receiver. The zones are fixed in height.
 Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM

• The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form

the number of bits per sample x the sampling rate
Bit rate = nb x fs
• The bandwidth required to transmit this signal
depends on the type of line encoding used. Refer to
previous section for discussion and formulas.
• A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth
than the original analog signal. Price we pay for
robustness and other features of digital transmission.
 Example
• We want to digitize the human voice. What is
the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
• The human voice normally contains
frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the
sampling rate and bit rate are calculated
as follows:
 PCM Decoder
• To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we
follow the following steps:
– We use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value of a
pulse till the next pulse arrives.
– We pass this signal through a low pass filter with a cutoff
frequency that is equal to the highest frequency in the pre-
sampled signal.
• The higher the value of L, the less distorted a signal is
recovered.
Components of a PCM decoder
 Delta Modulation
• This scheme sends only the difference between
pulses, if the pulse at time tn+1 is higher in amplitude
value than the pulse at time tn, then a single bit, say
a “1”, is used to indicate the positive value.
• If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative
value, a “0” is used.
• This scheme works well for small changes in signal
values between samples.
• If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in
large errors.
The process of delta modulation
Delta modulation components
Delta demodulation components
 Delta PCM (DPCM)
• Instead of using one bit to indicate positive
and negative differences, we can use more
bits -> quantization of the difference.
• Each bit code is used to represent the value of
the difference.
• The more bits the more levels -> the higher
the accuracy.
Multiplexing : Sharing a Medium

111
 Introduction
Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one
signal at any moment in time.
For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must
somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total
bandwidth.
The current techniques that can accomplish this include
• frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• time division multiplexing (TDM)
• Synchronous vs statistical
• wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
• code division multiplexing (CDM)
112
 Multiplexing

Multiplexor (MUX)
Demultiplexor (DEMUX)
Sometimes just called a MUX

113
 Multiplexing
• Two or more simultaneous transmissions
on a single circuit.
– Transparent to end user.
• Multiplexing costs less.

114
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each
“user” or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are
transmitted at the same time, each using different
frequencies.
A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each
device.
The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed communications
line.
A corresponding multiplexor, or de-multiplexor, is on the end
of the high-speed line and separates the multiplexed signals.
115
 Frequency Division Multiplexing

Analog signaling is used to transmits the signals.

Broadcast radio and television, cable television,
and the AMPS cellular phone systems use
frequency division multiplexing.
This technique is the oldest multiplexing
technique.
Since it involves analog signaling, it is more
susceptible to noise.

118
119
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

The original time division multiplexing.

The multiplexor accepts input from attached
devices in a round-robin fashion and transmit
the data in a never ending pattern.
T-1 and ISDN telephone lines are common
examples of synchronous time division
multiplexing.

121
Sample Output Stream generated by a
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

122
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

If one device generates data at a faster rate than

other devices, then the multiplexor must either
sample the incoming data stream from that device
more often than it samples the other devices, or
buffer the faster incoming stream.
If a device has nothing to transmit, the
multiplexor must still insert a piece of data from
that device into the multiplexed stream.

123
Example

124
125
Synchronous time division multiplexing

So that the receiver may stay synchronized

with the incoming data stream, the
transmitting multiplexor can insert alternating
1s and 0s into the data stream.

126
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Three types popular today:

• T-1 multiplexing (the classic)
• ISDN multiplexing
• SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)

127
The T1 (1.54 Mbps) multiplexor stream is a
continuous series of frames of both digitized data
and voice channels.

24 separate 64Kbps channels

128
The ISDN multiplexor stream is also a continuous
stream of frames. Each frame contains various
control and sync info.

129
SONET – massive data rates

SONET STS-1 Frame Layout

130
Synchronous TDM

• Very popular
• Line will require as much bandwidth as all the
bandwidths of the sources

131
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

A statistical multiplexor transmits only the

data from active workstations (or why work
when you don’t have to).
If a workstation is not active, no space is
wasted on the multiplexed stream.
A statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming
data streams and creates a frame containing
only the data to be transmitted.

132
133
To identify each piece of data, an address is
included.

134
If the data is of variable size, a length is also
included.

135
More precisely, the transmitted frame contains a
collection of data groups.

136
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

A statistical multiplexor does not require a line

over as high a speed line as synchronous time
division multiplexing since STDM does not
assume all sources will transmit all of the time!
Good for low bandwidth lines (used for LANs)
Much more efficient use of bandwidth!

137
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM)

Give each message a different

wavelength (frequency)
Easy to do with fiber optics and
optical sources

138
Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM)
Dense wavelength division multiplexing is often called
just wavelength division multiplexing
Dense wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes
multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line.
Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit
the multiple signals.
Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a
different rate from the other signals.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing combines many
(30, 40, 50, 60, more?) onto one fiber. 139
Data Signals Transmitted

140
141
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

Old but now new method

Also known as code division multiple
access (CDMA)
An advanced technique that allows
multiple devices to transmit on the same
frequencies at the same time using
different codes
Used for mobile communications
142
Code Division Multiplexing
An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to transmit on the same
frequencies at the same time.
Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code (chip spreading code)
To send a binary 1, mobile device transmits the unique code
To send a binary 0, mobile device transmits the inverse of code

143
 Code Division Multiplexing

Receiver gets summed signal, multiplies it by

receiver code, adds up the resulting values
Interprets as a binary 1 if sum is near +64
Interprets as a binary 0 if sum is near –64

144
145
 Business Multiplexing In Action

XYZ Corporation has two buildings separated

by a distance of 300 meters.
A 3-inch diameter tunnel extends
underground between the two buildings.
Building A has a mainframe computer and
Building B has 66 terminals.
List some efficient techniques to link the two
buildings.
146
147
 Possible Solutions

Connect each terminal to the mainframe computer

using separate point-to-point lines.
Connect all the terminals to the mainframe
computer using one multipoint line.
Connect all the terminal outputs and use microwave
transmissions to send the data to the mainframe.
Collect all the terminal outputs using multiplexing
and send the data to the mainframe computer using
a conducted line.
148
 Summary
• Multiplexing
• Types of multiplexing
– TDM
• Synchronous TDM (T-1, ISDN, optical fiber)
• Statistical TDM (LANs)
– FDM (cable, cell phones, broadband)
– WDM (optical fiber)
– CDM (cell phones)
149
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Sending of data from one device to another is called transmission of data.

Medium used to transmit the data is called media.
Transmission of data through medium is called transmission media. So, it is a
pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver.
We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.
Data is transmitted normally in electrical or electromagnetic signals.
Transmission media are located below the physical layer.
Computers use signals to represent data.
Signals are transmitted in from of electromagnetic energy.
Types of transmission media
 Twisted-pair Cable
 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together
 One of the wires carries signal, the other is used only as a ground reference.
 The receiver uses the difference b/w the two.
 Twisting increases, the probability that both wires are effected by the noise in
the same manner, thus the difference at the receiver remains same.
 Therefore, number of twists per unit length determines the quality of the cable.
 Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics
• Analog
– needs amplifiers every 5km to 6km
• Digital
– can use either analog or digital signals
– needs a repeater every 2-3km
• Limited distance
• Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
• Limited data rate (100MHz)
• Susceptible to interference and noise
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP and STP cables

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Ordinary telephone wire
• Cheapest
• Easiest to install
• Suffers from external EM interference
• Advantages of UTP:
 Affordable
 Most compatible cabling
 Major networking system
• Disadvantages of UTP:
• Suffers from external Electromagnetic interference

Applications:
• Telephone lines connecting subscribers to the central office
• DSL lines
• LAN – 10Base-T and 100Base-T
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference

• More expensive
• Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
• It offers protective sheathing around the copper wire and Provides
better performance at lower data rates.
• Not commonly used
• Installation is easy
• Distance is only 100-500 meters
• Special connecters are required.
STP Application
• STP is used in IBM token ring networks.
• Higher transmission rates over longer distances.
• Advantages of STP:
 Faster than UTP
• Disadvantages of STP:
 More expensive than UTP
 High attenuation rate
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
 Twisted Pair - Applications
Applications
• Most common medium
• Telephone network
• Within buildings
• For local area networks (LAN)
Pros and Cons
• Cheap
• Easy to work with
• Low data rate
• Short range
 Guided Media – Coaxial Cable

• Inner conductor is a solid wire outer conductor serves both

as a shield
• against noise and a second conductor
 Characteristics
• Superior frequency characteristics
• Performance limited by attenuation & noise
• Analog signals
– amplifiers every few km
– closer if higher frequency
– up to 500MHz
• Digital signals
– repeater every 1km
– closer for higher data rates
 Applications
• Most versatile medium
• Television distribution Categories of coaxial cables
• Long distance telephone transmission
• Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
• Short distance computer systems links
• Local area networks
• Analog telephone networks
• Cable TV networks
• Traditional Ethernet LAN – 10Base2, 10Base5
 Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable transmit signals in the form of light.
Bending of light ray
• Angle of Incidence (I): the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular
to the interface between the two substances
• Critical Angle: the angle of incidence which provides an angle of refraction
of 90-degrees.
• Uses reflection to guide light through a channel
• Core is of glass or plastic surrounded by Cladding
• Cladding is of less dense glass or plastic
 Optical Fiber – Transmission Characteristics

• Uses total internal reflection to transmit light

– effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
• Can use several different light sources
– Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts longer
– Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• more efficient, has greater data rate
• Relation of wavelength, type & data rate
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable

Propagation
Modes
Guided Media – Fiber-Optic Cable
Propagation
Modes
In multimode step-index fiber, the density
of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges. A beam of light moves
through this constant density in a straight
line until it reaches the interface of the
core and the cladding.

At the interface, there is an abrupt change

due to a lower density; this alters the angle
of the beam's motion

In multimode graded-index fiber,

decreases this distortion of the signal
through the cable.

Density is highest at the center of the core

 Fiber
Constructio
n

Applications:
• The fiber optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its
bandwidth is cost effective.
• Telecommunications
• Local Area Networks
100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
100Base-X
• Cable TV– backbone
• CCTV
• Medical Education
 Fiber Optic Advantages

 Greater capacity (bandwidth of up to 2 Gbps) & Smaller size

and lighter weight.
 Lower attenuation.
 greater repeater spacing

o 10s of km at least
 More resistance to corrosive materials & immunity to
environmental interference.
 highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of signal radiation.

Fiber Optic Disadvantages

 Installation and maintenance need expertise

 Much more expensive
 requires highly skilled installers
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Propagation methods
Bands
Wireless transmission waves
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.

They can penetrate through walls.

Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas

Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.

Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.

Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

Wireless Channels
Are subject to a lot more errors than guided media channels.

Interference is one cause for errors, can be circumvented with high SNR.

The higher the SNR the less capacity is available for transmission due to the
broadcast nature of the channel.

Channel also subject to fading and no coverage holes.